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A TEXTBOOK 

PHYSICS. 

A SHORT AND COMPLETE COURSE 

BASED UPON THE LARGER WORK OF (.A NOT 

FOR THE USE OF ACADEMIES. HIGH SCHOOLS, &c. 



HENRY KIDDLE, A.M., 

LATE SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS. NEW YORK CITY. 



The merits of Ganot's exhaustive treatise, has, in Prof. Atkinson's excellent 
translation, been very fully recognized, and as a college text-book it has been 
most extensively used, and has invariably received the highest commendation. 

The publishers, in this shorter and simpler compilation, present to the 
public a work thoroughly adapted to the wants of all classes of students of the 
academic or high school grade, as well as those of the grammar school ; since 
it affords a brief course containing a complete and practical exposition of the 
fundamental principles of physical science, clearly illustrated and fully exem- 
plified, but divested of all technical abstroseness. Of course, such investiga- 
tions as require an application of the higher mathematics, have, necessarily, 
been excluded. By this abbreviation, the work has been brought within a 
convenient compass without any essential sacrifice of the completeness proper 
to a book of this grade ; since it will be found to comprehend every essential 
topic belonging to this department of science, and to contain all the most im- 
portant illustrations and experimental demonstrations of the larger work. 

This book is commended to the attention of teachers as specially compre- 
hending the desirable features of clearness, compactness and brevity, as well 
as lucidity and completeness of treatment; in these respects challenging com- 
parison with all other text-books published on the subject. 

While not making any pretensions to an exhaustive treatment of physics, this book "f Mr. 
Kiddle's is not only well adapted to "use in Academies and High Schools," but to occupy a place 
On the shelves of any library.— ifew York School Journal. 

"The work is avaluable contribution to text-books npon tln> branch of science.*"— Louisiana 
Journal of Education . 

Tlii* work is, within it- chosen sphere, complete, and though abbreviated, nothing has been 
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A VALUABLE BOOK OF REFERENCE. 



The Standard Authority in the Correct Use of the 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



The Grammar of English Grammars, 



AN INTRODUCTION, HISTORICAL AND CRITICAL 



GOOLD BROWN, 

Author of "The Institutes .of English Grammar,'''' "The First Lines of English 
Grammar,' 1 '' die. 



TENTH EDITION-REVISED AND IMPROVED. 



ENLARGED BY THE ADDITION OF 

A COPIOUS INDEX OF MATTER, 

Bv SAMUEL U. BERRIAN, A.M. 



" This book of reference should stand in every teacher's library by the side of the Unabridged 
Dictionary. It is the great thesaurus of grammatical knowledge. In its present form it is a 
beautiful specimen of varied and elaborate typography,— corresponding herein to the high scien- 
tific character of the work. We can name no publication on English grammar, from any other 
source, which makes any approaches to the copiousness, critical character, and completeness of 
Brown's Grammar of English Grammars. It should lie on the teacher's desk of every public 
school, — be referred to as the accredited standard of English, and be made the sou'.ce whence 
the teacher is to draw his inspiration of grammar."— Neio England and National Journal of 
Education. 

"Why any student or teacher should be without this great and indispensable work, and why 
teachers in high places should not urge their pupils and friends to obtain it, is inconceivable 
t0 me '" O. H. ROBERTS, 

Prof, and formerly Acting Prin. of Pacific Mcth. College, Santa Rosa, Cal. 

'• I am an almost constant user of Brown's Grammar of Grammars.'" 

WILLIAM RICHARDSON. 
Supt. of Public Instruction, Chillicothe, Ohio. 

•• It is a work of superior merit, both as to contents and mechanical make up." 

J. FRAISE RICHARDS, Mansfield. Ohio. 

1100 Pages, Koyal Octavo. Price, bound in Leather, $5; Half Morocco. $6.25. 

PUBLISECEri BY 

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BROWN'S 

Language Lessons 

WITH 

GRADED EXERCISES 

IN 

ANALYSIS, PARSING, CONSTRUCTION, and COMPOSITION, 
AN INTRODUCTION 

TO 

GOOLD BROWN'S SERIES OF ENGLISH GRAMMARS 



BY 

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Late Superintendent of ScTwols, New TorTc City 



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PREFACE. 



The publication of this little manual is due to a demand, on the part 
of teachers who use Goold Brown's admirable system of English gram- 
mar, for an introductory work simpler and more elementary than the 
" First Lines," and supplied with more copious written exercises, and 
a system of diagrams for the illustration of sentential analysis. 

In compliance with this demand, the book has been divided into 
easy lessons, and the development system has been more fully carried 
out in the presentation and elucidation of the whole subject. The 
work has, in this manner, been divested of the character of a formal 
treatise while the logical order of the topics has been still preserved. 
Nor is it a mere epitome of Brown's larger work, "The Institutes of 
English Grammar, " but is to be regarded as a series of simple Language 
Lessons, involving the rudimentary principles, definitions, and rules of 
English Grammar, with abundant practice in their use and application, 
by means of both oral and written exercises, thus forming an introduc- 
tion to the study of the larger work. 

In all the lessons, the aim has been to divest the subject of the 
arbitrary and abstract character which has too often been given to 
grammatical study, and of which much complaint has justly been 
made. This has been avoided by developing in the mind of the pupil, 
by means of an easy and almost obvious analysis of simple examples, 
the ideas and distinctions designed to be imparted, after which formal 
definitions may properly be given. Thus every lesson, with its illustra- 
tive exercises in analysis and construction, becomes a step in training 
the pupil in the science and art of verbal expression, or language, and 
in leading him to the acquisition of correct habits in both speaking and 
writing. This is at present a very great desideratum in elementary 
education, not to be attained, as some think, by the abolition of what 
they are pleased to call "technical grammar," and the substitution of 
an arbitrary, hap-hazard method of practice, with no guide, principle, 
or rule, but by initiating the pupil into the knowledge and constant ap- 



IV PREFACE. 

plication of principles and rules, appealing at every step to his intelli- 
gence, and thus affording him that development of mind of which the 
rational study of grammar is so effective an instrument. 

The system of diagrams employed in this work is designed to pre- 
sent clearly and forcibly, through the eye, the component parts of the 
sentence and their relations to each other, every relation being dis- 
tinctly indicated by a special sign. This system has the advantage of 
complete perspicuity, so that the pupil, easily recognizing the relations 
indicated, may read the sentence as readily from the diagram as in its 
ordinary form. Hence, it will be found devoid of that complexity 
which, in most cases, has so greatly detracted from the value of this 
method of illustration, the diagram being often made more difficult to 
understand than the sentence which it is intended to explain. This 
method of graphically presenting the analysis of sentences, as soon as 
it has become familiar to the pupil, invariably becomes extremely fas- 
cinating to him, and serves to impress upon his mind those distinctions 
without a knowledge of which language can never be to the mind a 
definite means of expression, nor can ever be used with entire accu- 
racy and clearness. 

In the principles, rules, and definitions, the system of Goold Brown 
has been followed, with a very slight departure, for the sake of sim- 
plicity ; and it is believed that, by this publication, that author's time- 
honored work may be rendered more valuable and more satisfactory to 
teachers and the general public. 

New York, September 1, 1889. 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON 

I.- 

II.- 

III.- 

IV.- 

V.- 

VI.- 

VII.- 

VIII.- 

IX.- 



XII.- 

XIII.- 
XIV.- 
XV.- 
XVI.- 

XVII.- 

XVIII.- 

XIX.- 



XXII.- 
XXIII.- 
XXIV.- 
XXV- 
XXVI.- 
XXVII.- 
XXVIII.- 
XXIX.- 

XXX. 
XXXI. 



PAGE 

. 7 

-Letters, .... 8 

•Vowels and Consonants, . 9 

■Elementary Sounds, . . 10 

" " Continued, 11 

-Consonant Sounds; . . 12 
Syllables, Diphthongs, and 

Triphthongs, . . .14 
Diphthongal Sounds, . . 15 
■Syllables and Words, . . 17 
Division of Words into Syl- 
lables,' .... 18 
-Simple and Compound 

Words, .... 19 
-Primitive and Derivative 

Words, . . . .20 

-Spelling, .... 21 

-Spelling of Derivatives, . 22 

" " Continued, 23 

-Synopsis for Topical 

Review, ... 25 

-Names, . . . .26 
-Subject and Predicate, . 27 
-The Sentence, ... 28 
-The Noun and the Pro- 
noun 29 

-The Verb, .... 30 

-The Article, ... 32 

-The Adjective, ... 33 

-The Adverb, ... 34 

-The Conjunction, . . 35 

-The Preposition, . . 37 

-The Interjection, . . 38 

-The Participle, ... 39 
-The Parts of Speech.— Re- 
view, . . . .40 

-Analysis of Sentences, . 42 

-Analysis by Diagram, . 44 



LESSON PAGE 

XXXII. — Declarative and Interrog- 
ative Sentences, . . 45 
XXXIII.— Imperative Sentences, . 46 
XXXIV. — Exclamatory Sentences, . 47 
XXXV.— Oral Analysis and Parsing, 48 
XXXVI.— The Attribute, ... 50 
XXXVII.— Compound Subjects and 

Predicates, . . .52 
XXXVIII.— Phrases, . . . .53 
XXXIX. — Nouns and their Classes, . 56 
XL. — Modifications of Nouns. — 

Persons, . . . .57 
XLI.— Modifications of Nouns. — 

Numbers, . . .58 
XLII. — Modifications of Nouns. — 

Genders, . . . .59 
XLIII. — Modifications of Nouns. — 



01 



XLIV. — Construction and Compo- 
sition, . . . .64 
XLV.— Composition, . . .65 
XLVI.— Classes of Adjectives, . 66 
XL VII.— Comparison of Adjectives, 69 
XLVIIL — Simple and Compound 

Sentences, . . .71 
XLIX.— Classes of Pronouns, . . 73 
L.— Different Forms of Pro- 
nouns, . . . .75 
LI.— Compound Personal Pro- 
nouns, .... 
LIL— Different Kinds of Ad- 
juncts 

LIII. — Adverbial Adjuncts, . 
LIV.— Complex Sentences, . 
LV. — Construction. — Review, . 
LVL— Construction, Continued, 
LVII. — Compound Relative Pro- 



77 



V] 



CONTENTS. 



LESSON PAGE 

LVIII.-Different Kinds of Verbs, . 88 
LIX.— Modifications of Verbs.— 

Moods, . . . . S9 
LX. — Definitions of the Moods.— 

Beview, . . . .91 

LXL— Forms of the Moods, . . 92 

LXIL— Tenses 94 

LXIIL — Forms of the Tenses, . . 95 
LXIV.— Tense forms of the Verb 



97 



LXV.— Participles, ... 98 

LXVI.— Regular and Irregular 

Verbs, .... 99 
LXVII.— Person and Number of 

Verbs 101 

LXVIII.— Conjugation of Verbs, . 102 
LXIX.— Compound Conjugations, . 105 
IjXX. — Auxiliary and Defective 

Verbs 106 

LXXI.— Use of Would and Should, 107 

LXXII.— Adverbs.— Classes, . . 109 

LXXIII.— Conjunctions, . . .110 

LXXIV.— Prepositions, . . .112 

LXXV.— Use of Prepositions, . . 113 

LXXVI.— Participial Phrases, . . 115 

LXXVII.— Use of the Infinitive Mood, 117 

LXXVIII.— Infinitive Object Clause, . 119 

LXXIX. — Compound and Complex 

Phrases, . . . .120 

lxxx.— Synopsis for Topical 

Review, • • • 123 

LXXXI.— Relation of Words, . . 124 
LXXXII.— Agreement of Words, . 126 
LXXXIII.— Agreement. —Verbs and 

Subjects, . . .129 
LXXXIV.— Agreement. — C o n n e c ted 

Verbs 130 



LESSON 

LXXXV 



LXXXVI 

LXXXVII 



LXXXVIII. 
LXXXIX. 



xc 

XCI 



XCII 



XCIII 
XCIV. 

xcv. 

XCVI. 
XCVII 
XCVIII 

XCIX 
0, 

CI. 
CII. 

cm. 
crv. 

cv. 
cvi. 
evil. 

CVIII. 



PAGB 

— Agreement. — Subject 

and Attribute, . . 131 
— Agreement. — Pronoun 

and Antecedent, . . 132 
— Agreement. — Connected 

Antecedents, . . 134 
— Government, . . . 135 
— Government. — Preposi- 
tions, . . . .137 
— Definitions. — Review, . 138 
—Different Kinds of 

Clauses, . . .139 
— Subject and Attribute 

Clauses, . . .141 
—Object Clauses, . . 142 
— Infinitive Object Clauses, 143 
— Adjective Clauses, . . 145 
—Adverbial Clauses, . . 146 
—Explanatory Clauses, . 147 
— Independent Clauses and 

Phrases, . . .148 
— Compound Sentences, . 150 

—Synopsis for Topi- 
cal Review, • • 151 

—Use of Capitals, . . 153 
— Punctuation. — Review, . 154 
—Exercises in Construction, 156 
— Composition. — Connec- 
tion of Sentences, . 157 
—Descriptive Compositions, 159 
—Letter- Writing, . . 160 

— " Forms of Address, 162 

— " Body and Closing, 163 



APPENDIX. 
List of Irregular Verbs, . 
List of Redundant Verbs, 



LESSON I. 
LANGUAGE. 

For what purpose do people speak or write ? 

People speak or write to express their thoughts or feelings. 

What do they use in speaking and writing ? 
They use words. 

What is this mode of expressing thoughts or feelings called ? 

It is called language. 

The word language is derived from the Latin lingua, the tongue. 

What, then, is language ? 

Language is the expression of thought in speaking or 
writing. 

Do all people use the same language ? 

No ; people living in different countries generally use 
different languages. 

Can you give some examples ? 

What language do we use in this country? 

We use the English language. 

How many ways of using language are there ? 

There are two ways of using language, — by speaking and by 
writing. 

How many kinds of language, then, are there ? 

There are two kinds, — spoken language, or speech, and 
written language. 

What are the simplest elements of language ? 

In spoken language, sounds ; and in written language, 
letters representing those sounds. 

To know how to use a language correctly, we must study 
its grammar. 

English Grammar is the art of speaking and writ- 
ing the English language correctly. 



8 LETTEKS. 

LESSON II. 

LETTERS. 

The teacher begins this lesson by writing on the blackboard several letters, 
and then proceeds : — 

What are these marks, or characters ? 
They are letters. 

What sounds do these letters denote ? 
[The pupils are to give the phonic elements.] 
What are the names of these letters ? 

What must be learned in regard to each letter ? 
The form of the letter, its name, and the sound which it 
represents. 

What is a letter? 

A letter is a character used in printing or writing to rep- 
resent a sound of the human voice. 

The sounds of letters are sometimes called their powers. 
The alphabet contains the names or forms of all the let- 
ters arranged in a certain order. 

The letters used in English have two different forms. 
Thus :— 

A, B, C, D, E, F, etc. 
a, b, c, d, e, f, etc. 

The larger letters are called CAPITALS ; the others, small 
letters. 

Letters of this form are called Roman letters, because they 
were anciently used by the Romans. 

There are, also, Italic letters, so called because they are the 
same as those used in the Italian language. 

The form used in writing is called script. Thus : — 



J- 



VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 9 

LESSON III. 

VOWELS AND CONSONANTS. 

How many letters are there in the English alphabet ? 
There are twenty-six. 

Give their names in regular order. 
Now try to give the sound of each. 

Which of the letters have names the same as their sounds ? 
The letters a, e, i, O, U. 

How are the names of the others formed ? 

Eight of them are formed by using the sound of the letter 
before e. These names are be, ce, de, ge, pe, te, ve, and ze. 

Six are formed by using the sound of the letter after e. 
These are ef, el, em, en, es, and ex. 

The others are variously formed ; namely, ja, ha, qu, ar, 
aitch, double-u, and wi. 

Which of the letters have complete sounds when they are ut- 
tered alone ? 

The letters a, e, i, o, and u. 

These letters are called vowels. 

The other letters of the alphabet are called conso- 
nants. 

Why are they so called ? 

Because they must be joined to a vowel to be fully and 
clearly uttered. 

The word consonant means sounding with. 

A vowel is a letter which forms a perfect sound when 
uttered aloDe. 

A consonant is a letter which cannot be perfectly 
uttered till joined to a vowel. 



10 ELEMENTAKY SOUNDS. 

Review. 

What is language ? Of how many kinds ? What are the ele- 
ments of language ? What is a letter? What is the use of letters? 
What is the alphabet ? Different forms of letters ? What is a 
vowel ? What is a consonant ? What are the names of the vow- 
els ? How are the names of the consonants formed ? What does 
the word consonant mean ? 



LESSON IV. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

The elementary sounds, or powers of the letters, are 
either vowel sounds or consonant sounds. 

Be careful to keep in mind the difference between the letters and their 
powers, or the sounds which they represent. 

The elementary sounds are more numerous than the 
letters of the alphabet. 

On this account some letters represent more than one 
sound, and some sounds are represented by combinations 
of letters. 

For examples see the different sounds of the vowels below. 

The vowel sounds are represented by the vowels or 
their combinations; as, a in fall, fare, fat j ai in aim, 
and ou in out. 

The vowels represent different sounds in different 
words. The following are the sounds of a : — 

The marks used with the letters, to distinguish the sounds, are 
called diacritical marks. The diacritical marks used are those of 
Webster's Dictionary. 

a (as in age), a (care), a (art), a (all), a (at), a (ask), 
a (what). 



ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 11 

The sounds of e are : — 

e (eve), e (they), e (there), e (term), e (end). 

The sounds of i are : — 

I (ice), 1 (pique), 1 (firm), 1 (it). 

The sounds of o are : — 

o (old), o (do), 6 (love), o (wolf), 6 (nor), 6 (not). 

The sounds of u are : — 

u (tune), u (rude), u (urn), u (pull), u (but). 

It should be observed that several of these letters with their 
marks represent the same sounds. Thus a and e are the same, 
and & and g, also p and u ; with some others. 

The pupils should be thoroughly drilled in the enunciation of these ele- 
mentary sounds. 



LESSON V. 
ELEMENTARY SOUNDS.— Continued. 

Besides the vowels already named, the letter y is used 
as a vowel in some words. Its sounds are y (try), J 
(myrrh), y (hymn). 

It thus only supplies the place of i. 

The vowel sounds are long or short. The short sounds 
are : — 

a (at), a (ask), a (what) ; e (end) ; l (it) ; o (not), 6 (love), 
o (wolf) ; ii (but), u (pull) ; and y (hymn). 

The pupil can now turn back to Lesson IV., and enunciate the long sounds 
of each vowel. 

The following vowel sounds are compound : namely, 
that of I, formed of a and i ; and that of u, formed of I 
and o. 

Enunciate the two simple sounds together rapidly, and thus produce the 
compound sound. 



12 



CONSONANT SOUNDS. 



The following table shows the long sounds and the cor- 
responding short sounds, with the vowels which represent 
them : 



Long 


Sounds. 


1. 


a 


§ 


2. 


a 


e 


3. 


a 




4. 


a 


6 


5. 


e 


i 


G. 


e 


T 


7. 


6 




8. 


o 


u 


9. 


u 





Short Sounds. 


S 




a 




a 




a 


6 


i 


y 


p 


u 


6 


u 



How many long vowel sounds are there ? 

By what letters are they represented ? 

How many short vowel sounds ? 

By what letters are they represented ? 

Write a list of words containing each of these sounds. 



LESSON VI. 
CONSONANT SOUNDS. 

The vowels represent open sounds. 

Open sounds are such as are produced by the or- 
gans of speech with a more or less open position of the 
mouth. 

The consonants represent sounds produced by obstruct- 
ing the vowel sounds, more or less, by means of the lips, 
teeth, tongue, or palate. 

The consonant sounds are sometimes distinguished in 
pairs, the one kind being called Jlats, and the other shar-ps, 
as shown in the following table: — 



CONSONANT SOUNDS. 



13 







Consonant Sounds. 








Flats. 




Corresponding Sharps. 


1. b 


as in 


bib 


P 


as in 


pip 


2. a 


" 


aia 


t 


« 


toot 


3- g 


u 


gag 


k 


cc 


kin 


4. z 


" 


zinc 


s 


CC 


sun 


5. th 


a 


the 


tb 


cc 


tbin 


6. v 


a 


vim 


f 


cc 


fin 


7. zh 


" 


azure 


sh 


cc 


sbip 


8. 1 


cc 


lily 








9. m 


" 


mum 








10. n 


" 


nun 








11. r 


" 


rim 








12. ng 


a 


song 








13. w 


" 


way 








14. y 


" 


yet 








Hf 


« 


(gin 
(jam 


cb 


" 


cburcl 



The consonant c represents either the sound of k, as in 
cat, or that of s, as in cent. 

The consonant h represents merely a breathing, or as- 
pirate. 

The sound of g (soft), ovj, is not a simple sound, being 
composed of d and zh. Its corresponding sharp, ch (church), 
is composed of t and sh. 

There are, therefore, twenty-two simple consonant sounds 
in English, including the aspirate h. 



TZeview. 

Of what two kinds are elementary scmnds ? What is the differ- 
ence between letters and their powers ? Why is a letter made to 
represent more than one sound ? How are vowel sounds repre- 
sented ? How are consonant sounds represented ? What are the 
different sounds of the vowel a ? What are the sounds of e ? Of 



14 SYLLABLES, DIPHTHONGS, AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

i ? Of o ? Of u ? Of the vowel y ? Enunciate all the long sounds 
of each of the vowels. Enunciate all the short sounds. What 
are diacritical marks ? Ans. They are marks placed over or under 
the vowels' to distinguish their sound. What vowel sounds are 
compound ? What consonant sounds are compound ? What does 
h represent ? How are the consonants distinguished ? Enunciate 
the flats. Enunciate the corresponding sharps. How many sim- 
ple consonant sounds in English ? 



LESSON VII. 

SYLLABLES, DIPHTHONGS, AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

When we join letters together, as p-a,pa; b-o-n, bon, what do 
we form ? 

We form syllables. 

A syllable is one or more letters pronounced in one 
sound. 

When a letter that is not sounded is used in a syllable, it is 
said to be mute, or silent ; as the letter e in base, and the letters u, 
g, and h, in though. 

A syllable must have at least one vowel, so as to form a 
complete sound. 

How many vowels are there in bond ? 
How many are there in bound ? 

Do the two vowels in bound form one complete sound, or two 
sounds ? 

They form only one complete sound, because they are 
joined together so as to make only one syllable. 

There are many other examples of two vowels joined in one 
sound ; as, oi in voice, oa in boat, ea in beat, ie in chief, etc. 

Two vowels joined in one syllable form what is called a 
diphthong. 



DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 15 

The syllable di (used for dis) means two, and phthong (Greek) means a 
sound of the voice. 

Three vowels are sometimes joined in one syllable ; as, e, a, 
u, in beauty, and u, o, y, in buoy. 

Three vowels joined in one syllable form what is called 
a triphthong. 

From tri, three, and phthong, a sound of the voice. 
In the word cow for what vowel is w used ? 

It is used for the vowel u. 

Other examples are found in awe, jaw, raw, dew, jew, row, 
bow,Jiow, glow, etc. 

What other letter is sometimes a vowel and sometimes a conso- 
nant ? 

When are w and y consonants ? 

W and y are consonants when they precede a vowel heard 
in the same syllable ; as in wine, twine, yet, youth. 



LESSON VIII. 
DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 

Diphthongal Sounds, or sounds of diphthongs, are 
the following : oo (long), as in moon ; oo (short), as in book ; 
oi or oy, as in voice and boy ; and ou or ow, as in loud and 

cow. 

In the diphthong oa, as in the word loaf, how many of the 
vowels are sounded ? 

Only one — the vowel o. 

In the diphthong oi in voice, how many of the vowels are 
sounded ? 

Both the vowels — 6 and e — which sounded together make 
the sound oi. 



16 



DIPHTHONGAL SOUNDS. 



A diphthong in which both the vowels are sounded is 
called a proper diphthong. 

A diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded 
is called an improper diphthong. 

Thus oi and oy are examples of proper diphthongs ; and ea (in 
beat) and oa (in loaf) are improper diphthongs. ' They have the 
sounds of single vowels, not diphthongal sounds. 

A proper triphthong is a triphthong in which all 
the vowels are sounded. 

An improper triphthong is a triphthong in which 
only one or two of the vowels are sounded. 

Thus uoy in buoy (pronounced bwoy), and uoi in quoit, are proper 
triphthongs, and eau in beauty is an improper triphthong. 

Exercises. 

1. Write the following words, one under the other, and at the right 
of each write the diphthong, or diphthongs, which it contains, with the 
word proper or improper after each. 

1. Mean. 

2. Chief. 

3. Goal. 

4. Eeign. 

5. Spoon. 

6. Town. 
Example. 



7. Builder. 

8. Pointed. 

9. Despair. 

10. Either. 

11. Ancient. 

12. Maintain. 
-Fountain- 

Fourteen — ou (improper), ee (improper). 
2. In the same manner, write after each of the following words the 
triphthong which it contains. 



13. Degree. 

14. Coward. 

15. Conscience. 

16. Prairie. 

17. Journey. 

18. Issue. 



19. Eeceive. 

20. Joyous. 

21. Jealous. 

22. Nation. 

23. Tea-spoon. 

24. School-boy. 
-ou (proper), ai (improper). 



1. Awefuh 

2. Eyelet. 

3. Buoyant. 



4. Viewless. 

5. Beauteous. 

6. Adieu. 



7. Anxious. 

8. Quoiffure. 

9. Review. 



10. Cautious. 

11. Outrageous. 

12. Predaceous. 



3. Write a list of five words, each containing one or more proper 
diphthongs. 

4. Also Jive words, each containing one or more improper diph- 
thongs, 



SYLLABLES AND WOEDS. 17 

LESSON IX. 
SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 

How many syllables are there in the word paper ? In able ? 
In boy ? In carpenter ? In clock ? In egg ? 

A syllable is either a word or a part of a word. 

A word is one or more syllables spoken or written as 
the sign of some idea. 

An idea is an image or picture in the mind of some- 
thing previously perceived. 

You can think of any object which you have seen — a tree, for 
example — so as to see it in your mind, like an image or a picture. 
This mental picture is called an idea. The word tree enables you 
to express the idea in speaking or writing. Our thoughts are 
made up of ideas, and language is the expression of these thoughts. 

Words have particular names according to the number of 
syllables which they contain. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; a word 
of two syllables, a dissyllable • a word of three syllables, 
a trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a poly- 
syllable. 

Mono means one ; dis, two ; tri, three ; and poly, many. 

Exercises. 

1. Write a list of ten monosyllables. 

2. Write a list of ten dissyllables. 

3. Write a list of five trisyllables. 

4. Write a list of five polysyllables. 

5. Write five monosyllables, each containing a diphthong. 

6. Write five polysyllables, each containing five or more syllables. 

Review. 

"What is a syllable ? What is a diphthong ? A triphthong ? A 
proper diphthong? An improper diphthong? A proper triph- 
thong ? An improper triphthong ? What is a word ? An idea ? 
"What is a monosyllable ? A dissyllable ? A trisyllable ? A poly- 
syllable? 



18 DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

LESSON X. 

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES. 

It is important to know how to divide words into their proper 
syllables, especially because, 

In writing when we come to the end of a line, we may di- 
vide a word, but a syllable should never be broken. 

The following are examples of words divided into syllables : 
Harm-less, Con-nect-ed, Con-nec-tion, In-ter-view, Un-donbt- 
ed-ly, Con-sid-er-a-tion, Im-pos-si-bil-i-ty, Tran-si-to-ri-ness. 

The pupil should be required to pronounce these words, enunciating dis- 
tinctly every syllable. 

Of what does each syllable consist ? 

Each syllable consists of a single vowel, diphthong, or 
triphthong, and the consonants which belong to it, or mod- 
ify its sound. 

In dividing words into syllables we must be guided chiefly 
by the ear. 

When two vowels come together which do not form a diph- 
thong, they belong to different syllables ; as, ae-ri-al, co-op-er- 
ate, zo-ol-o-gy. 

When two vowels come together in this way the fact that they 
are not a diphthong is indicated by placing two dots (called the 
diaeresis) over the second vowel ; as, aerial, cooperate, zoology. 

Exercise. 

Write the following words, one under the other, and at the right of 
each write the same word divided into its proper syllables, as in the 
above examples. 



1. Understand. 

2. Divisible. 

3. Catalogue. 

4. Permissible. 

5. Aeriform. 



6. Degradation. 

7. Preparation. 

8. Grammarian. 

9. Dictionary. 
10. Additional. 



11. Embarrassment. 
VI. Monosyllable. 

13. Miscellaneous 

14. Orthography. 

15. Abecedarian. 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND WOEDS. 19 

LESSON XI. 
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND WORDS. 

What words are joined together to form the word watchman ? 
The words watch and man. 

"What words united make penknife, full-blown, nevertheless ? 

"Words formed in this way from other w T ords are called 
compound words. 

Words not composed of other words are called simple 
words. 

Thus the words ivatch and man are simple words. Com- 
pound words are formed by merely placing the simple words 
together, as in watchman, nevertheless, or by joining them with 
a mark (-) called a hyphen ; as in full-blovm, all-wise, school- 
boy. 

The hyphen is not used in more common and permanent 
compounds ; as, moonbeam, horseman, bluebird, penknife, spoon- 
ful. 

A simple word is one that is not composed of other 
words. 

A compound word is one that is composed of two 
or more simple words. 

Exercises. 

Write compounds from the following simple words, joining any two 
that may be properly united, and using the hyphen where required. 

Bird, pen, ship, cage, wreck, knife, mouse, moon, beam, trap, 
shine, sun, day, week, time, mint, pepper, church, box, man, arm, 
yard, watch, clock, maker, rail, school, road, master. 

Examples. 
Bird-cage, penknife, shipwreck, mousetrap. 
[In case of doubt as to the use of the hyphen or not, the pupil must be al- 
lowed to consult the dictionary.] 



20 PI1IMIT1VE AND DEKIVATIVE WOBD8. 

LESSON XII. 
PRIMITIVE AND DERIVATIVE WORDS. 

How is the word greatly formed ? 

By adding the syllable ly to the word great. 

In the same way state how each of the following words is 
formed : — 

1. Connected. 4. Connecting. 7. Connectedly. 

2. Connection. 5. Connector. 8. Unconnected. 

3. Connective. 6. Disconnect. 9. Connectively. 
From what word are all these words formed ? 

What is a syllable called that is placed after a word, such as 
ed, ion, or, etc. ? 
It is called a suffix. 

What is a syllable called that is placed before a word, such as 
dis and un ? 

It is called a prefix. 

Which words in the above list have prefixes ? 
Which have suffixes? 

What are words formed in this way called ? 
They are called derivative words. 

What are the words called from which they are derived ? 
They are called primitive words. 

A primitive word is a word not formed from any 
simpler word. 

A derivative word is a word derived from some 
simpler word. 

Exercises. 

1. Write fire derivative words each containing the suffix ment. 

2. Write five words each containing one of the following suffixes : 

ly, or, ion, less, ard. 

3. Write five words each containing one of the following prefixes : 
dis, mis, over, un, under. 



SPELLING. 21 

4. Write as many derivative loords as you can from each of the 
following primitive words: Command, Appear, Construct, Elect, 
Cover, Press, Inhabit, Destroy. 

Write the primitive word in large letters, and underneath, a little to the 
right, place the derivatives. 

Example. — Conceal. 

Concealed. 
Concealing. 
Concealment. 
Unconcealed. 

Heview. 

Into what may words be divided? Of what does each syllable 
consist ? For what is the diaeresis used ? What is a simple word ? 
What is a compound word ? For what is the hyphen used ? 
What is a primitive word ? What is a derivative word ? What is 
a prefix ? What is a suffix ? 



LESSON XIII. 
SPELLING. 



Spelling is the art of expressing words by their proper 
letters. 

This important art is to be acquired by means of the spelling-book or 
dictionary, by observation in reading, and by the constant use of words in 
writing. There are, however, a few general rules that are of considerable 
value, especially in the formation of derivative words. 

Primitive words sometimes undergo a slight change when 
a syllable is added. 

Thus when ing is added to please, the derivative is pleasing, the 
final e being dropped. So also when the syllable we is added to 
please, the derivative is pleasure. Thus, too, from force we have 
forced, farcing, and forcible ; and from love, loving and lovable. 

This is expressed in the following — 

Rule. — The final e of a primitive word should generally be 
omitted before a suffix beginning with a vowel. 



22 



SPELLING OF DERIVATIVES. 



Exception. — When the final e of a primitive word is pre- 
ceded by c or g, it should be retained before able and ons. 

Because the letters c and g have the hard sounds (as in cat and 
get) before a, o, and u, and are soft (as in cell and gem) before e, i, 
and y, therefore, to avoid hardening c and g the final e is retained ; 
as, peaceable, changeable, outrageous, etc. 

Exercise. 

Write derivatives from each of the folloxoing words, as in the pre- 
ceding lesson. 



1. Lodge. 

2. Judge. 

3. Cease. 



4. Compose. 

5. Outrage. 

6. Service. 



7. Eequire. 

8. Inspire. 

9. Courage. 



10. Dispose. 

11. Agree. 

12. Complete. 



LESSON XIV. 
SPELLING OF DERIVATIVES. 

Such monosyllables as rob, fit, plan, quit, etc., double the 
final consonant when the suffix begins with a vowel. Thus : — 
Rob — robbing, robbed, robber. 
Fit— fitting, fitted, fitter. 
Plan— planning, planned, planner. 
Quit — quitting, quitted, quittance. 

But when the monosyllable has a diphthong, the final con- 
sonant is not doubled. Thus : — 

Toil — toiling, toiled, toiler. 

Heal — healing, healed, healer. 

Quit looks like an exception, but it is not, as u here performs the office of 
a consonant, the pronunciation being kicit. 

When the last syllable of any word contains a single vowel, 
and the accent falls on that syllable, the final consonant is 
also doubled. Thus : — 

Commit — committing, committed, committee. 

Propel — propelling, propelled, propeller. 



SPELLING OF DERIVATIVES. 



23 



Begin — beginning, beginner. 

Acquit — acquitting, acquitted, acquittance. 

Accent is the stress placed on a particular syllable in a word, 
and is sometimes indicated by the mark ('). Thus, permit', 
differ. 

Hence we have the following — 

Rule. — Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syl- 
lable, when they end with a single consonant preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant before a suffix that 
begins with a vowel. 

Exercise, 

Write derivatives from the following words, as in the preceding 



1. Dig- 


6. Fulfil. 


11. Kidnap. 


16. "Worship. 


2. Whip. 


7. Peril. 


12. Control. 


17. Beclaim. 


3. Swim. 


8. Prefer. 


13. Marvel. 


18. Annul. 


4. Boil. 


9. Eebel. 


14. Equal. 


19. Bedim. 


5. Sin. 


10. Travel. 


15. Occur. 


20. Benumb. 



LESSON XV. 
SPELLING OF DERIVATIVES.— Continued. 

Primitive words ending in y generally change y into i when 
a syllable is added. Thus : — 

Pity — pitied, pitiless, pitiful. 

Merry — merrier, merrily, merriment. 

But before ing, y is retained, to prevent the doubling of ?". 
Thus :— 

Flying, pitying, decrying, beautifying. 

Also, when a vowel precedes the final y, it is retained. 
Thus :— 

Gayly, coyness, joyous, enjoyment, moneyed. 



24 



SPELLING OF DERIVATIVES. 



Daily, laid, paid, and some others are exceptions. 

Words in ie drop the e by a preceding rule, and change i 
into y ; as, die, dying. 

Compound words generally retain the spelling of the sim- 
ple words that compose them. 

But in permanent compounds the words full and all drop 
one I ; as, handful, careful, ahvays, withal. 



Exercises. 

1. Write derivatives from each of the following words, 
preceding lessons. 



the 



1. Mercy. 

2. Journey. 

3. Beauty. 

4. Bury. 



5. Deny. 

6. Modify. 

7. Combat. 

8. Carry. 



9. Busy. 

10. Plenty. 

11. Defy. 

12. Annoy. 



13. Fancy. 

14. Happy. 

15. Money. 

16. Contrary. 



2. Write the primitive word from which each of the following 
words is derived, and state what rule is applied in the spelling. 

1. Compelled. 4. Spoonful. 7. Loveliness. 

2. Skillful. 5. Preferred. 8. Believing. 

3. Happiness. 6. Business. 9. Salable. 

That part of grammar which treats of letters, syllables, 
separate words, and spelling is called orthography. 

Review. 



"What is spelling ? What is the rule for final e ? What excep- 
tion to it ? What is the reason for tbe exception ? What is the 
rule for monosyllables ? Exception ? What is the rule for doub- 
ling the final consonant? "What is meant by accent? What is 
grammar? What is English grammar? What is orthography? 
Ans. Orthography is that part of grammar which treats of letters, 
syllables, separate words, and spelling. 



SYNOPSIS FOE TOPICAL EEVIEW. 



25 



LESSON XVI. 
SYNOPSIS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 



Orthography . 



Language. 


3. Sharps. 


1. Its purpose. 


4. Letter h. 


2. Different languages. 


5. Number of. 


3. "Ways of using. 


7. Syllables. 


4. Different kinds of. 


8. Diphthongs. 


5. Simplest elements of. 


1. Proper. 


6. Grammar. 


2. Improper. 


7. English grammar. 


9. Triphthongs. 


Letters. 


1. Proper. 


1. Forms. 


2. Improper. 


2. Names, how formed. 


3. Words. 


3. Elementary sounds. 


1. Classes. 


4. Vowels and consonants. 


2. Monosyllables. 


5. Vowel sounds. 


3. Dissyllables. 


1. Sounds of a. 


4. Trisyllables. 


2. " " e. 


5. Polysyllables. 


3. " " t. 


6. Division into sylla- 


4. " " o. 


bles. 


5. " " u. 


7. Simple. 


6. « << y. 


8. Compound. 


7. Diphthongal 


1. Permanent. 


sounds. 


2. How joined. 


8. Sounds of w. 


9. Primitive. 


9. Long and short. 


10. Derivative. 


10. How produced. 


1. Suffix. 


6. Consonant sounds. 


2. Prefix. 


1. How produced. 


11. Spelling. 


2. Flats. 


Eules for. 



26 NAMES. 

LESSON XVII. 

NAMES. 

What are such words as pen, book, pencil, slate ? 
They are the names of things. 

What are John, William, Eliza, Brown, Smith ? 
They are the names of persons. 

What are Albany, Bvffalo, Philadelphia, New York? 
They are the names of places. 

Why do we give different names to persons, places, and things? 
To distinguish them one from another in speaking and 
writing. 

As we cannot even think clearly of any objects, whether per- 
sons, jilaces, or things, and cannot speak or write of them at all, 
without giving them names, such words are the most important in 
every language. 

Exercises. 

Write lists of the following : — 

1. Five names of persons. 

2. Five names of places. 

3. Five names of things. 

4. Five names of flowers. 

5. Five names of fruits. 

6. Five names of animals. 

7. Five names of carpenter's tools. 

8. Five names of blacksmith's tools. 

9. Five names of parts of the body. 

10. Five names of parts of a book. 

11. Five names of parts of a chair. 

12. Five names of things in the school-room. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 27 

LESSON XVIII. 
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Birds fly. William plays. Trees grow. Horses neigh. 

How many statements are here ? 

Of what does each speak ? 

What is said of birds ? Of William? Of trees ? Of horses? 

Whatever is spoken of is called the subject. 

What is said of the subject is called the predicate. 

What are the subjects in the above statements ? 
Birds, William, trees, and horses. 

What are the predicates ? 
Fly, plays, grow, and neigh. 

The subject and predicate joined together make what 
is called a sentence. 

In the following sentences, the subject is separated from 
the predicate. Each may contain one or more words. 

Subjects. Predicates. 



1. Mary 

2. The sun 

3. The horse 

4. Bees 

5. Birds 

6. The bird 



reads. 

shines. 

runs swiftly. 

make honey. 

build nests. 

is building a nest. 



JEocercises, 



1. Write predicates for the following subjects : — 

Trees . Flowers . Henry . The moon 

2. Write subjects for the following predicates : — 



is writing. sing. bloom. burns. 

fade. has leaves. is green. shines 

brightly. falls gently. 



28 THE SENTENCE. 

LESSON XIX. 

THE SENTENCE. 

When a subject and a predicate are joined in any way 
they make complete sense. 

Any single word serves to express an idea, but there must 
be a subject and a predicate to make the sense complete. 
Thus each of the following groups of words expresses an 
idea or a combination of ideas ; but, as there is no predicate, 
the sense is not complete, and none of them is a sentence. 

A horse. 

A black horse. 

A man on horseback. 

A horse running away. 

In the following, however, there is complete sense : — 

The black horse ran away. 

What is the subject in this sentence ? 
What is the predicate ? 

A sentence is an assemblage of words that makes 
complete sense, and always contains at least one subject 
and one predicate. 

Besides words, there are required in every sentence one or 
more points, or marks, to express the meaning more clearly. 

The following are the principal points, or marks : the 
Comma [,], the Semicolon [;], the Colon [:], the Period [.], 
the Dash [— ], the Note of Interrogation [?], the Note of 
Exclamation [!], the Quotation Points [""], the Marks of 
Parenthesis — Curves ( ) and Brackets [ ]. 

The use of these points is called punctuation. 

Every sentence must end with a period, a note of interro- 
gation, or a note of exclamation. 



THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN. 29 

Exercise. 

Copy the sentences given below, separating the subject from the 
predicate, by a double dotted line, and drawing a straight line under 
each. 

Models. 

Birds ::::: sing. 

The bird :::::: sings. 
The canary bird :----■: sings sweetly. 

1. Lions roar. 

2. The lion roars. 

3. The tawny lion roars terribly. 

4. The snow falls slowly. 

5. George studies diligently. 

6. The diligent pupil improves rapidly. 

7. A good servant works faithfully. 

8. The winter wind moans dismally. 

Dibection. — Begin every sentence with a capital letter. 



LESSON XX. 

THE NOUN AND THE PRONOUN. 

The name of any person, place, or tiling, when used in 
a sentence, is called a noun. 

Foint out the nouns in the following sentences : — 
Tlie sun shines. The flower blooms. The fire burns. 

In the above sentences, is the noun in the subject or in the 
predicate ? 

What are the nouns in the following sentences ? 

Bees make honey. Birds build nests. TJxe sun ripens the 
fruit. The boy told an untruth. 

What nouns are in the subject, and what are in the predicate ? 
John studies. lie will improve. 



30 THE VERB. 

What noun is the subject of the first sentence? 

What word is used instead of it in the second? 

Alfred has two books. He studies them well. 

What nouns in these two sentences ? 

What words are used for nouns in the second sentence ? 

For what is he used ? 

For what is them used ? 

A word used instead of a noun is called a pronoun. 

Pro means for, or instead of. 

Mary gave Mary's book to Mary's brother Charles. 
Can you change this sentence by using pronouns so as to 
avoid repeating the noun Mary ? 

Mary gave her book to her brother Charles. 

Of what use is the pronoun ? 

It prevents the need of repeating the same noun too often. 

Exercise. 

Write the following sentences, and fill the blank in each by insert- 
ing a pronoun. 

1. John lost book. 2. Sarah did work well. 3. 

William loves play, and will not study lessons. 

4. The teacher said must punish . 5. John's mother 

said to , must obey , or shall have to 

punish . 6. The boys said, let have some fun. 7. 

The boy lost knife, but found in 

desk. 



LESSON XXI. 
THE VERB. 



Birds fly. Charles is taught. He is. She sleeps. 

Name the predicate in each of these sentences. 

What does the predicate fly show or express ? 

It shows what birds do, that is, what action they perform. 



THE VERB. 31 

What does the predicate is taught express ? 

It expresses what is done to Charles. 

What does the predicate is denote ? 

It denotes being, without action of any kind. 

What does the predicate sleeps denote ? 

It denotes being in a certain slate or condition. 

The word in a sentence which shows that the subject is 
spoken of as being, acting, or being acted upon, is called a 
verb. 

When the name of the person or thing acted upon is in 
the predicate of the sentence, it is called the object. 

That is, it is the object upon which the action expressed by the 
verb is performed; as, "He split the wood." "He felled the 
tree." " She plucked & flower." 

The object answers to the question, what? before the verb. 
Thus, He split what ? Ans. The wood. He felled what ? Ans. The 
tree. 

Which is the verb in each of the following sentences, and what 
does it denote ? 

In which has the verb an object ? 

In which is the subject represented as acting ? 

In which as acted upon ? 

1. Cain slew Abel. 

2. Abel was slain by Cain. 

3. The horse. runs very fast. 

4. John studies his lessons. 

5. The boy was punished. 

6. The earth is a round body. 

7. The child slept soundly. 

The verb is the principal word in the predicate. The 
other words in the predicate directly or indirectly depend 
upon it. 

The verb alone may be the predicate. (See Lesson. XVIII.). 
Usually other words are required to express fully what we wish to 



32 THE ARTICLE. 

say of the subject. Thus in the sentence John studies, we state 
only how he is employed ; but if we wish to say what he studies, 
we insert the object ; and if we desire to state how he studies, we 
add such a word as well, diligently, or carelessly. 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a verb that denotes being. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a verb that denotes 
action performed by the subject. 

3. Write three sentences, in each of which the subject is represented 

as ACTED UPON. 

4. Write three sentences, each containing an object. 

Divide each sentence into its subject and predicate, as in Lesson XIX. 



LESSON XXII. 
THE ARTICLE. 

The horse ran away. A horse can run. 

What do we mean when we say the horse ? 

We mean some particular horse. 

What do we mean when we say a horse ? 

We mean any horse — no particular horse. 

Thus the when placed before a noun makes its meaning definite ; 
while a when placed before a noun shows that it is indefinite. 

When the noun begins with a vowel a must be changed to an. 
Thus we do not say a apple, a eye, or a hour (h being silent), but 
an appl», an eye, an hour. But we say a union, not an union ; be- 
cause union begins with the consonant sound of y. 

These little words a, an, the, are called articles. 
The is called the definite article ; and a or an, the 
indefinite article. 

How many articles are there? 
What are articles? 

Articles are the words the and an or a, which are placed 
before nouns to limit their signification. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 33 

Exercises. 

Write three sentences, each containing one or more definite articles. 

Write three se?itences, each containing one or more indefinite ar- 
ticles. 

In each sentence separate the subject from the predicate, as in Les- 
son XIX. 



LESSON XXIII. 
THE ADJECTIVE. 



A good book instructs. The vicious dog bites. 

In each of these sentences, what word is placed before the 
noun, besides the article ? 

For what purpose are the words good and vicious used ? 

The word good expresses the quality of the book ; and 
vicious, the quality of the dog. 

"Words added to nouns to express quality are called 
adjectives. 

How are adjectives like articles? 
They are both added to nouns. 

How do they differ from articles ? 

Articles are always placed before nouns ; but adjectives are 
added to nouns, though not always placed before them, and 
are also added to pronouns. Thus : — 

Tlie book is good. The dog is vicious. He is idle. 

Exercise. 

Separate the subject from the predicate in the following sentences, 
as in Lesson XIX. ; and draw a line over every article and adjective 
in each. 

1. The old barn was burned. 

2. The fierce dog bit the boy. 

3. The lightning struck a tall tree. 

4. The full moon sheds a pale light. 

3 



34 THE ADVERB. 

5. She gave the good scholar a nice new book. 

6. The bright sun scorched the green grass. 

Review. 

What is a sentence ? What is the subject of a sentence ? 
What is the predicate ? When do words express complete sense ? 
What is a noun? What is a pronoun? Of what use are pro- 
nouns? What is the chief word of the predicate? What may the 
verb express ? What is the object ? How may it be found ? 
What are articles ? How many articles are there ? When is a 
used ? When is an used ? How are the two articles named ? 
What words are added to nouns and pronouns? What do they 
generally express ? How do adjectives differ from articles ? 



LESSON XXIV. 
THE ADVERB. 



The horse runs swiftly. 

What verb is used in the predicate of this sentence ? 

What word is added to it ? 

What does the word swiftly show ? 

It shows how, or in what manner, the horse runs. 

The horse runs very swiftly. 

In this sentence what word is added to swiftly? 

What does the word very show ? 

It shows how swiftly the horse runs ; that is, the degree of 
his swiftness. 

7" went there yesterday. 

What words are added to the verb went ? 

What do they express ? 

The wond there expresses place, and yesterday expresses 
time. 

Words added to verbs in this way are called adverbs. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 35 

Adverbs may be added, also, to adjectives or to other 
adverbs. 

Thus, in one of the sentences given above, very is added to the 
adverb swiftly. We may say, also, a very swift horse, the adverb 
very being added to the adjective swift. 

Adverbs generally express time, place, degree, or 
manner. 

Exercises. 

1. Copy the following sentences, separating the subject and the pred- 
icate in each, as in Lesson XIX., and draw a line over every adverb. 

1. The sun shines brightly. 

2. The flowers soon fade. 

3. He acted very foolishly. 

4. The old man walks slowly. 

5. Then they went away quickly. 

6. The house is now sold. 

7. I will go there directly. 

2. Write a list of the nouns in these sentences. 

3. Also of the pronouns, articles, adjectives, and verbs. 
Suggestion. — Exercises 2 and 3 may be made oral instead of written exer- 
cises at the option of the teacher. 



LESSON XXV. 
THE CONJUNCTION. 

John is a good scholar. William is a good scholar. Charles 
is a good scholar. 

In what respect are these sentences alike ? 
The predicate is the same in each of them. 

Join them together so as to form a single sentence with but one 
predicate. 

John, William, and Charles are good scholars. 



36 THE CONJUNCTION. 

What have you joined — subjects or predicates ? 

What word is used to connect them ? 

The pupil should observe the use of the comma here. 

T)ie pupils read, write, and cipher. 

How many verbs are there in the predicate of this sentence? 

By what word are they connected ? 

Mary is diligent. Her sister is idle. 

Can you connect these sentences, so as to form only one sen- 
tence? 

Mary is diligent, but her sister is idle. 

"What word is used to connect these sentences ? 
Observe here, also, the use of the comma to separate the connected sen- 
tences. 

Words used to connect words or sentences are called 
conjunctions. 

Exercises. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing a conjunction used in the 
subject. 

2. Write three sentences, each containing a conjunction used in the 
predicate. 

3. Write three sentences, each composed of tiro sentences connected 
by a conjunction, similar to the example given in the lesson. 

4. Write a list of the conjunctions used in the folloicing sentences, 
ayid after each unite the words or sentences which they connect. 

1. Days, months, and years glide away. 

2. Truth endures, but falsehood perishes. 

3. Boys and girls are fond of fun and play. 

4. John failed, because he was careless. 

5. The man was firm, for he was brave. 

6. Samuel aud his brothers Henry and James were present. 

7. Scholars should be diligent, earnest, and attentive. 

Punctuation. — 1. Separate the connected sentences by a 
comma. (See 2. 4. 5.) 

2. Separate by a comma three or more words of the same 
kind that form a series. (See 1 and 7.) 



THE PREPOSITION. 37 

LESSON XXVI. 
THE PREPOSITION. 

The bird flew over the tree. The boy climbed up the tree. 
The squirrel ran down the tree. 

What verbs are used in these sentences ? 

To what is the action expressed by each of thern related ? 

It is related to the tree. 

Is the relation the same in each? 

No ; it is over the tree in the first, up the tree in the 
second, and down the tree in the third. 

What words are used to express this relation ? 

The words over, up, and down. 

Words that express relation in this way are called 
prepositions. 

A preposition is placed before a noun or a pronoun, and 
expresses the relation of some other word to it. 

Thus, in the above sentences, over expresses the relation be- 
tween tree and J?e«> ; up, the relation between tree and climbed; and 
down, between tree and ran. This relation is not exactly between 
the words, but between the ideas, expressed by the words. 

The noun or pronoun before which the preposition is 
placed is called its object. 

The other term of relation is most frequently a verb. Some- 
times it is a noun; as, " The handle of the knife." Sometimes it 
is an adjective ; as, " Good for food." 

JExercises. 

1. Write a list of the prepositions in the following sentences, and 
state the loords between which they express the relation. 

1. The roof of the house leaks. 

2. A pin without a head is useless. 

3. The birds in the tree sing sweetly. 

4. He put the money into the bank. 

5. He gave some money to the beggar. 

2. Write sentences each containing one or more of the following 
prepositions : upon, beyond, by, for, of, with, among, under. 



38 THE INTERJECTION. 

LESSON XXVII. 
THE INTERJECTION. 

My bird is dead. Alas ! my bird is dead! 

Do both these sentences express the same fact ? 

How, then, do they differ ? 

The first merely states the fact, while the other expresses 
some feeling or emotion with it. 

"What word is used to denote this feeling ? 

The word alas ! which expresses sorrow. 

What are words used in this way, to express feeling or emotion, 
called ? 

They are called interjections. 

What interjection is used in each of the following sentences ? 

1. Oh! how beautiful is the clear sky! 

2. Hush ! you will disturb her sleep. 

3. O, give me back my early days ! 

4. Pshaw ! how ridiculous that is ! 

5. O ! how I long to be free \ 

Does the interjection form a part of the subject or the predicate 
of a sentence ? 

It forms no part of either, but is independent of the other 
words. It is used merely to indicate the emotion caused by 
the fact or event stated in the sentence. 

Punctuation. — Every sentence that expresses emotion 
should be followed by the exclamation point (!). 

The interjection is followed by an exclamation point, except (1) 
in emotional address, or (2) in expressions which are wholly 
emotional. As in the following : — 

(1) Arise, O Lord ! Alas, my noble boy ! O ye of little faith ! 

(2) Ah me ! Alas for his family ! Oh the grave ! the grave ! 

Exercises. 

1. Write a list of all the interjections which you can think of. 

2. Write sentences each containing one or more interjections. 



THE PARTICIPLE. 39 

LESSON XXVIII. 
THE PARTICIPLE. 

Charles flying his kite had a bad fall. 
What is the subject of this sentence ? 
What is added to the noun Charles ? 
The words fly ing his kite. 
What does the word flying express ? 

It expresses action, like a verb, and, also, has an object, 
kite, like a verb. 

As it is added to the noun Charles, what other word does it 
resemble ? 

It resembles an adjective. 

The word flying, therefore, participates in the proper- 
ties of a verb and an adjective, and is therefore called a 
participle. 

Participles sometimes participate in the properties of a 
verb and a noun. 

Thus, in the sentence, " She is fond of reading history," the 
participle reading is the object of the preposition of, like a noun, 
while it expresses action and has an object, like a verb. 

How, then, may we define a participle ? 

A participle is a word that participates in the proper- 
ties of a verb and an adjective, or of a verb and a noun. 

The following are examples of the two kind* of participles : — 

I. Verb and adjective. 

1. The house taking fire was destroyed. 

2. My friend having failed became poor. 

3. John not having been promoted left school. 

4. Arnold, despised by all, left the country. 
II. Verb and noun. 

1. He delighted in doing mischief. 

2. He was satisfied with having done his duty. 

3. She took pleasure in being called amiable. 

4. Doing good was her chief occupation. 



40 



THE PAIITS OF SPEECH. 



Participles are derived from verbs. 
Verbs. 
Love, 
Walk, 
Kill, 
Go, 
Write, 

Exercise. 



Thus :— 

Participles. 
loving, loved, 
walking, walked, 
killing, killed, 
going, gone, 
writing, written. 



Write a list of the participles in the following sentences, and men- 
tion whether they are used as adjectives or nouns. 

1. Edgar splitting wood cut his foot. 

2. The letter written yesterday was not mailed. 

3. Disobeying his parents, John went to the pond. 

4. John is very fond of rowing his boat. 

5. The men were engaged in mending the road. 



LESSON XXIX. 
THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



Review. 

We have now seen that the words that form a sentence perform 
different offices. Some are names ; some express action or being ; 
some, quality ; some, manner or time ; some, connection ; some, 
relation, and others only emotion. 

The words used in sentences are, therefore, divided into 
classes called parts of speech. 

There are ten parts of speech : the Article, the Noun, the 
Adjective, the Pronoun, the Verb, the Participle, the Adverb, 
the Conjunction, the Preposition, and the Interjection. 

We will here give a simple definition of each. 

A noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. 



THE PAKTS OF SPEECH. 41 

An article is the word the, an, or a, which we put be- 
fore a noun to limit its signification. 

Eemakk. — There are three words in the English language used 
as articles, the, an, and a; but there are, in fact, only two articles, 
the being the definite article, and an or a the indefinite. 

An adjective is a word that is added or relates to a 
noun or a pronoun, and generally expresses quality. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

A verb is a word that signifies to he, to act, or to oe 
acted ujpon. 

An adverb is a word added to a verb, an adjective, or 
another adverb, and generally expresses time, place, de- 
gree, or manner. 

A conjunction is a word used to connect words or 
sentences. 

A preposition is a word used to express relation. 

An interjection is a word that is used merely to in- 
dicate some feeling, or emotion. 

A participle is a word derived from a verb, and par- 
ticipates in the properties of a verb and an adjective, or 
of a verb and a noun. 

That part of grammar which treats of the different parts 
of speech, and of the classes into which they are divided, 
is called etymology. 

"What is etymology ? 

Questions for Review, 

What is an adverb ? To what may adverbs be added ? What 
is a conjunction ? What may conjunctions connect ? What is a 
preposition ? What is it placed before ? What relation does it 
express ? What is its object ? What is an interjection ? Is it de- 
pendent on any other word ? What is a participle ? Why so 
called ? Of how many kinds are participles ? From what are they 
derived ? What is etymology ? 



42 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

LESSON XXX. 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

A good boy always promptly obeys his parents. 

"What is the subject of this sentence ? 

What is the predicate ? 

What noun forms part of the subject ? 

What verb forms part of the predicate ? 

"What words are added to the noun boy ? 

"What words are added to the verb obeys ? 

"What object has the verb ? 

"What pronoun is added to the object parents ? 

The noun boy, which is the principal word in the entire 
subject, is called the subject noun. 

The subject noun is the subject unmodified by the words added 
to it. 

The verb obeys, which is the principal part of the entire 
predicate, is called the predicate verb. 

The predicate verb is the predicate unmodified by the words 
added to it. 

The subject noun, or pronoun, and the predicate verb 
are the principal words of a sentence. 

Words added to other words in a sentence are called 
adjuncts. 

The word adjunct is derived from the Latin preposition ad, meaning to, 
and the Latin participle junctus, meaning joined. 

Thus adjectives and articles are adjuncts of nouns, and adverbs 
are adjuncts of verbs. 

The analysis of a sentence is the separation of it 
into the parts of which it is composed. 

This separation is first into its subject and predicate, and 
then each of these into its principal part and adjuncts. 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 43 

The following sentence analyzed will afford an example : — 
Virtuous youth gradually brings forward accomplished and 
flourishing manhood. 

Analysis. — The subject is Virtuous youth, and the predicate the 
remainder of the sentence. The subject noun is youth, and its 
adjunct is virtuous. The predicate verb is brings, and its object, 
manhood. The adjuncts of the verb are gradually and forward; and 
the adjuncts of the object are accomplished and flourishing, con- 
nected by and. 

The use Of analysis is to show how the words in a 
sentence are related to each other, and what office each of 
them performs in the sentence. 

How may a sentence be built up ? 

By inserting adjuncts of the subject noun, the predicate 
verb, and the object of the verb. 



Subjects. 
The pupil 
The pupil 
The good pupil 
The industrious pupil 



Example. 

Predicates. 
studies. 

studies history, 
thoroughly studies history, 
thoroughly studies English 
history. 

What are the adjuncts of the subject noun in the last sentence ? 
What adjunct has the predicate verb ? 
What is the adjunct of the object ? 

Exercise. 

Insert adjuncts to the subject noun and predicate verb of the fol- 
lowing sentences. 

1. The sun shines. 2. The stars twinkle. 3. The wind blows. 
4. The lion roars. 5. Horses gallop. 6. The sailor climbs. 7. 
Snow is falling. 8. The ship sailed. 9. The storm rages. 10. 
The bird sings. 11. The fox was caught. 12. The ship was 
wrecked. 



44 ANALYSIS BY DIAGRAM. 

LESSON XXXI. 

ANALYSIS BY DIAGRAM. 

The object of the diagram in the analysis of a sentence is to 
represent clearly to the eye the structure of the sentence, 
namely, its entire subject and its entire predicate, and the compo- 
nent parts of each, in their proper relations, as principal parts and 
adjuncts. 
Examples are here given. 



The 



Diagram 1. 

pupil _ studies history. 



What the Diagram Shows. 
In this representation, the snbject noun and the predicate verb are marked 
by heavy lines, drawn underneath, separated by a double dotted line, which 
forms the division between the entire subject and the entire predicate. 
The object is marked by a light line, and separated from the verb by a single 
dotted line. The adjunct is written below the word to which it belongs, 
either at the right or left, according to its proper position, separated from it 
by a perpendicular line and underscored by a light line. The position of the 
in the above will illustrate this ; but it will be more clearly obvious in — 



The 
good 



Diagram 2. 
pupil ' studies 

thoroughly | English 



history. 



Exercises, 

In the manner shown above, indicate the analysis of the 
here given. 

1. The full moon sheds a soft, pale light. 

2. The bright sun scorched the green grass. 

3. A diligent pupil always makes rapid improvement. 

4. The sharp frost killed the young buds. 

5. John carelessly lost his nice new book. 

6. The frightened horse ran away swiftly. 



DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 45 

LESSON XXXII. 
DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

The predicate verb may be a single word or two or more 
words. 

This will be seen in the following sentences : He went away. 
Did he go away? He has gone away. He will not go away. 
Would he have gone away ? 

The words did, has, will, would, have, etc., are used to help to 
express some circumstance connected with the being or action 
denoted by the verb. 

The subject and predicate of a sentence may be combined 
in several ways : 1. To declare some fact ; 2. To ask a ques- 
tion ; 3. To express an exclamation ; and 4. To give a command. 

Therefore, sentences are of four kinds : declarative, inter- 
rogative, exclamatory, and imperative sentences. 

A declarative sentence is one in which the predi- 
cate affirms or denies. 

An interrogative sentence is one in which the 
predicate asks a question. 

Of the above sentences, which are declarative, and which are 
interrogative ? 

Sentences are made interrogative by a slight change in the 
order of the words, or in the form of the predicate verb. 
Thus :— 

Declarative. Interrogative. 



1. The moon is rising. 

2. Henry has gone home. 

3. John learns fast. 

4 William went away. 



5. Is the moon rising ? 

6. Has Henry gone home ? 

7. Does John learn fast ? 

8. Did William go away ? 



To analyze an interrogative sentence, first put it in the form of 
a declarative sentence, but without changing the verb. Thus : — 



46 IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

Did William's brother recite his lessons well to-day ? 
brother did recite 

William's [ ------ —^ "£k ~ 

to-day 

Exercise, 

Change the following declarative sente7ices to interrogative sen- 
tences, and analyze each by diagram. 

1. My father will leave town to-morrow. 

2. The European steamer made a short fiassage. 

3. The idle boy did not study his lessons carefully. 

4. The diligent pupil will always make great progress. 

Punctuation. — Interrogative sentences must always be fol- 
lowed by an interrogation point. 



LESSON XXXIII. 
IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

An imperative sentence is one that expresses a 
command or an entreaty. 

In imperative sentences the subject is generally omitted. 
It is understood to be the pronoun thou or you. 

The following are examples of imperative sentences : — 

1. Read your book silently. 

2. Now go away immediately. 

3. Stop that runaway horse. 

4. Do not remain away long. 

5. John, study your lesson carefully. 

The word John, in the last of those sentences, simply shows 
who the subject is. It forms no part of the structure of the sen- 
tence, and is, therefore, said to be independent. 



EXCLAMATOEY SENTENCES. 47 

Punctuation. — The name of a person addressed should be 
set off by the comma ; as, " Tell me, William, if you can." 

Exercise. 

Write the analysis of the above five imperative sentences in diagram 
form. 

Model. 

William, perform your task carefully. 

( You) perform i task. 

~" carefully ^HlI 

[William] 

The parenthesis indicates that the subject is understood; the 
brackets, that the noun William is independent. 



LESSON XXXIV. 
EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

An exclamatory sentence is one that expresses 
some strong emotion, or a mere exclamation. 

Exclamatory sentences often contain interjections. 

The following are examples of exclamatory sentences : — 

1. How fast the horse runs ! 

2. O ! how wrongly you have acted ! 

3. What a delightful time we had ! 

4. How wickedly and cruelly some people act ! 

5. What a bad disposition that boy has ! 

Very often the words in such sentences need to be transposed — 
that is, placed in the same order as in declarative sentences. Tims, 
Sentence 4 transposed is, Some people act how wickedly and cruelly ; 
and Sentence 5, That boy has what a bad disposition. 



48 ORAL ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Punctuation. — Exclamatory sentences should be followed 
by the note of exclamation. (See Lesson XXVLT.) 

Exercise. 

Put in diagram form the above five exclamatory sentences. 

Model. 
" Alas ! how shamefully they have treated their friends ! " 

they have treated 

shamefully their 



friends. 



howl- 
[Alas !] 

Questions for Review. 

What is the analysis of a sentence ? How is it made ? What 
is the principal part of the subject? Of the predicate ? What are 
adjuncts ? How is a sentence built up ? How is a sentence ana- 
lyzed by diagram ? In how many ways may the subject and predi- 
cate be combined ? What is a declarative sentence ? An inter- 
rogative sentence ? An imperative sentence ? An exclamatory 
sentence ? What is the punctuation of each ? What is the sub- 
ject of an imperative sentence ? What is transposition ? When 
is it needed ? 



LESSON XXXV. 
ORAL ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

After the sentence has been placed in diagram form, the 
pupil should be required to give an oral analysis of it. The 
following is an example. (For diagram, see Lesson XXXI.) 

The good pupil thoroughly studies English history. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a declarative sentence. The subject 
is the good pupil ; the predicate, thoroughly studies English history . 
The subject noun is pupil, and its adjuncts are the and good. The 



OEAL ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 49 

predicate verb is studies, and its adjunct is thoroughly; the 
object is history, which has the adjunct English. 

In a similar manner, give the oral analysis of each of the 
sentences in the Exercise to Lesson XXXI. 

Having discovered by analysis the relations of all the words 
to each other, and thus the part performed by each in the 
construction of the sentence, we can easily tell what part of 
speech each word is, and apply to it the proper rules. 

The explaining of each word in a sentence according to 
the definitions and rules of grammar is called parsing. 

Analysis applies those principles which belong to every lan- 
guage, — for in all languages there must be subject, predicate, and 
adjuncts; but parsing recognizes and applies those definitions, 
rules, and usages that belong to the particular language treated 
of. Thus below we give the parsing of the above sentence, as far 
as our progress in the treatment of the subject permits. The pars- 
ing will become fuller as we advance ; here, of course, it is quite 
rudimentary. 

Parsing.— The is an article, because it is placed before the noun pupil 
to limit its signification. 

Good is an adjective, because it is added to the noun pupil, and expresses 
quality. 

Pupil is a noun, because it is the name of a person. 

Thoroughly is an adverb, because it is an adjunct of the verb studies ; it 
also expresses manner. 

Studies is a verb, because it expresses action as performed by the subject 
pupil. 

English is an adjective, because it is an adjunct of the noun history. 

History is a noun, because it is the name of a thing. 



Exercise, 

Parse in the same manner each woj-cl in the sentences given in Les- 
son XXXI. 

[The pupils should be required to give the reason of each statement, as in 
the above example, so that they may become familiar with the definitions.] 
4 



50 THE ATTRIBUTE. 

LESSON XXXVI. 
THE ATTRIBUTE. 

1. A useful book gives instruction. 

2. The book is useful. 

Write the analysis of Sentence 1 in diagram. 
"What adjective is there in the subject. 
Why is useful an adjective ? 
Because it is an adjunct of the noun book. 

What adjective is there in Sentence 2 ? 
Is it in the subject or in the predicate ? 
It forms a part of the predicate. 

Why is useful in this sentence an adjective ? 

Because it relates to the noun book, and expresses quality. 

An adjective that relates to the subject, and forms a 
part of the predicate, is called an attribute. 

The attribute expresses what is directly affirmed of the sub- 
ject, or attributed to it. Thus, in Sentence 2, the quality of use- 
fulness is attributed to the book spoken of. When we say, a useful 
book, we imply that the book has that quality ; but when we say, 
The book is useful, we directly affirm or attribute it. Hence the 
term attribute. 

The attribute is not always an adjective, but may be a 
noun, or a pronoun. 

The following sentences afford examples : — 

1. Gold is a metal. 

2. Washington was a true patriot. 

3. New York is a great city. 

4. It is he. 



THE ATTRIBUTE. 51 

In Sentence 1, the noun metal is an attribute, because it is used 
as a part of the predicate, and relates to the subject gold, since it 
denotes what gold is ; that is, to what class of substances it belongs. 
The attribute may express class or identity. Thus in 1, 2, and 3, 
it expresses class ; in 4, it expresses identity. In the sentence, 
Site is a queen, the attribute expresses class ; but in, She is the 
queen, it expresses identity. 



Diagkam of Sentence 3. 
New York is 



city. 



great 

The attribute is separated from the verb by a straight line, instead of 
a clotted line, as in the case of the object. This method of indicating the at- 
tribute is followed in all the succeeding diagrams. 



Exercise. 

Write, in diagram form, the analysis of the following sentences, 
give the oral analysis of each, and parse each word. State how each 
noun is used. 

1. The sky is blue. 2. The fields are green. 3. My book is 
old. 4. The spring flowers are very beautiful. 5. Honesty is the 
best policy. 6. Napoleon was a great general. 7. The tiger is a 
very ferocious animal. 8. The earth is a spherical body. 9. The 
boy's industry is quite praiseworthy. 

Sentence 3— Parsed. 

New York is a noun, because it is the name of a place. It is used as the 
subject noun of the sentence. 

In is a verb, because it signifies being, and is the predicate verb of the sen- 
tence. 

A is the indefinite article, and relates to the noun city. 

Great is an adjective, and is added to the noun city. 

City is a noun, because it is the name of a place. It is used as the at- 
tribute in the predicate of the sentence. 



52 COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 



LESSON XXXVII. 
COMPOUND SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES. 

1. George, William, and Henry took a walk. 

2. The pupils read, write, and cipher. 

What is the subject of Sentence 1 ? 

It has three subjects, George, William, and Henry, but they 
are so connected as to form a single subject. 

A subject of this kind is called a compound subject. 

What is the predicate of Sentence 2 ? 

Is it simple or compound ? 

What predicate verbs does it contain ? 

The boys and girls laugh, talk, and play. 

What is the subject of this sentence ? 
What is the predicate ? 

The diagram here given shows how to represent the analysis of 
such sentences. 



The 



and and 

■s | girls laugh | talk | play. 



This sentence contains in contracted form six sentences : The 
boys laugh. The girls laugh. Tlie boys talk. Tlie girls talk. Tlie 
boys play. The girls play. The general structure, however, is 
simple, as the diagram shows. 

Oral ANALYSIS. — This is a declarative sentence, having a compound sub- 
ject— Tin 1 boys and girls — and a compound predicate — laugh, talk, and play. 

The subject consists of the two nouns boys and girls, connected by and, the 
being an adjunct of both of them. The predicate consists of the three verbs 
laugh, talk, and play, connected by ayid. 



PHEASES. 53 

Exercise, 

In the same manner analyze by diagram and orally each of the fol- 
lowing sentences. Also parse the words in each. 

1. John and Peter are good scholars. 

2. Peaches, pears, and apples are delicious fruit. 

3. The animals turned, looked, and ran away. 

4. Music cheers, refines, and elevates the mind. 

5. Henry, Edward, and Mary attended the same school. 

6. John studied well, improved very rapidly, and soon got a 
good place. 

The following diagram of the last sentence will show how the 
adjuncts are inserted. 

and 
John studied | improved | got _ _ : place. 

well I rapidly I I soon a j 
very | good! 

Punctuation. — See Lesson XXV. 



LESSON XXXVIII. 
PHRASES. 

1. He did the work immediately. 

2. He did the work without any delay. 

3. He did the work in a short time. 

"What adverb is added to the verb in 1 ? 

What three words are used for it in 2 ? 

What four words are used for it in 3 ? 

The groups of words, without any delay and in a short time, per- 
form the same office in 2 and 3 as the word immediately does in 1 ; 
that is, they are adjuncts of the verb did, and express time. 

Groups of words of this kind are called phrases. 



54 PHRASES. 

How may we define a phrase ? 

A phrase is a group of words containing neither a 
subject nor a predicate, and generally performing the 
office of a single part of speech. 

Thus phrases may be used as subjects, objects, attributes, or 
adjuncts ; and, also, as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. In Sen- 
tences 2 and 3, the phrases are, obviously, used as adverbs. 

When a phrase begins with a preposition, it is called a 
prepositional phrase. 

The object of the preposition is the principal part of the 
phrase. 

The principal part of the phrase without any delay is delay ; of 
the phrase in a short time it is time. The principal part of a phrase 
may have a phrase adjunct ; as, " In the early part of the year." 

Exercises, 

Write in diagram form the analysis of the following sentences 
according to the models given. 

MODKLS. 

1. The find lady gave some money to that poor man. 



The 
kind 



lady gave | money. 



| to some 

I man 



that 
poor 



2. A pin without a head is wholly useless. 

| pin ______ is I useless. 

1 | without wholly | 

I head 



PHRASES. 55 

The preposition is represented by a perpendicular line joining its object to 
the word to which the phrase is added, and thus connecting the two terms of 
relation. Thus to expresses the relation between gave and man ; and without, 
between pin and head. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a declarative sentence, of which the subject is 
a pin without a head ; and the predicate, is wholly useless — 

The subject noun is pin, and its adjuncts are the article a and the preposi- 
tional phrase without a head, of which head is the principal part, having the 
adjunct a. 

The predicate verb is is, and useless is the attribute, having the adjunct 
wholly. 

1. The paper lies upon my desk. 

2. The cat was sleej)ing quietly before the fire. 

3. A boy without perseverance will always fail. 

4. My father will go abroad in the spring of the go 

year. | in 

5. The nimble squirrel swiftly ran up the trunk 1 s pring 

of the tall tree. *^L! , I of 

year. 



Parse the separate words in each sentence. the 

To parse the preposition, mention the words between which it shows or 
expresses the relation. Thus in the sentence, A pin without a head is wholly 
useless, 

Without is a preposition showing the relation between the noun pin and 
the noun head ; because the phrase without a head is an adjunct of the noun 
pin, being used as an adjective. 



Review. 

"What is parsing ? 

Ans. Parsing is the resolving or explaining of a sentence ac- 
cording to the definitions and rules of grammar. 

How does it differ from analysis ? What is an attribute ? 

Ans. An attribute is an adjective, noun, or pronoun which re- 
lates to the subject but forms a part of the predicate. 

How is it represented in the diagram ? "What is a compound 
subject ? A compound predicate ? What is a phrase ? A prepo- 
sitional phrase ? How is it represented in the diagram ? What 
is the principal part of a prepositional phrase ? 



56 NOUNS AND THEIR CLASSES. 

LESSON XXXIX. 
NOUNS AND THEIR CLASSES. 

Thomas, Henry, and George are good boys. 

What three nouns form the compound subject of this sentence ? 

How do these nouns differ from the attribute noun boys ? 

The subject nouns are the names of three particular boys, 
while the attribute noun boys denotes the members of a kind 
or class of persons. 

The names of particular individuals are .called proper 
nouns. 

A proper noun is the name of -whatever is particularized, or 

distinguished as an individual from all others of the same class. 
Thus the name of a particular people, as the Romans, of a partic- 
ular group of islands, as the Azores, or of a range of mountains, as 
the Alps, is a proper noun. 

A name that may be applied to any one of a class of beings 
or things is called a common noun. 

Common nouns are general names, but proper nouns are 
particular names. 

Among common nouns are included collective nouns, 
and participial nouns. 

A collective noun, or noun of multitude, is the 
name of many individuals taken together ; as, army, council, 
meeting, herd, flock. 

A participial noun is one formed from a verb, like a 
participle, but used as a noun ; as, " The triumphing of the 
wicked is short." 

In the sentence, "The hunting of wild animals is dangerous," 
hunting is a participial noun ; but in the sentence, " In hunting 
wild animals there is danger," hunting is a participle. 



MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. — PERSONS. 57 

Exercise. 

Analyze ~by diagram and parse the following sentences. State the 
class to which each noun belongs. 

1. John's brother yesterday went to Philadelphia. 

2. A political convention was recently held in Chicago. 

3. Columbus sailed from Spain across the ocean. 

4. Washington was the first president of the United States. 

5. The telling of falsehoods always brings shame. 

Direction. — Begin every proper noun with a capital letter. 



LESSON XL. 
MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS.— PERSONS. 

1. /, John, wrote the letter. 

2. William, bring me your slate. 

3. Samuel has won the prize. 

In what different ways are the nouns John, William, and Sam- 
uel used in these three sentences ? 

John is used as the name of the person who speaks or 
writes the sentence ; William, as the name of the person 
spoken to ; and Samuel, as the name of the person spoken of. 

The name of the speaker is said to be of the first per- 
son ; that of the person spoken to, of the second per- 
son ; and that of the person spoken of, of the third 
person. 

The different ways in which nouns may be used are called 
modifications. 

Persons are modifications that distinguish the speaker, 
the hearer, or person addressed, and the person or thing 
spoken of. 



58 MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. — NUMBERS. 

How many persons are there ? 

What is the first person ? The second person ? The third per- 
son ? 

Punctuation. — A noun of the second person should be fol- 
lowed by a comma, and also preceded by it, except when it is 
the first word in the sentence. 

Exercise. 

Analyze, classify, and parse all the nouns in the following sentences, 
stating the class and person of each of tlie nouns. 

1. The book is new. 2. My pen is bad. 3. Charles, come 
hither. 4. The bird has escaped from its cage. 5. Children, 
obey your parents. 6. I, Ezra, was there. ' 7. Samuel, tell the 
truth. 8. Sarah is a very industrious girl. 9. Mary, study your 
lessons. 



LESSON XLL 
MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS.— NUMBERS. 

The bird sings. The birds sing. 
The fox runs. The foxes run. 

In these sentences, which nouns signify only one ? 
Which signify more than one ? 
How is this indicated ? 

By adding s to bird, we form birds, which signifies more 
than one ; and by adding es to fox, we form foxes. 

Nouns which signify only one are said to be of the sin- 
gular number. 

Nouns which signify more than one are said to be of the 
plural number. 

Numbers are those modifications which distinguish 
unity and plurality. 



MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. — GENDERS. 



59 



These modifications are marked by a change in the form, 
or spelling, of the word. 

The plural number is generally formed by adding s or es to 
the singular. 

In most nouns s only is added ; but when s alone will not 
unite with the singular form, es is added; as, foxes, boxes: also in 
some nouns ending in o ; as, heroes, mottoes. 

Collective nouns may also be used in the plural; as, flocks, 
herds, armies, meetings. 

A change in the spelling of a word to express a modification 
is called an inflection. 

A change in the number of the subject noun often requires a 
change in the form, or spelling, of the verb. (See the sentences 
at the head of the lesson.) 

Exercise, 

Write the singular with each of the following plural forms : — 



1. Flies. 

2. Wives. 

3. Knives. 

4. Calves. 

5. Loaves. 

6. Strifes. 

7. Feet. 

8. Teeth. 



9. Chiefs. 

10. Geese. 

11. Men. 

12. Women. 

13. Children. 

14. Griefs. 

15. Pence. 

16. Pennies. 



17. Axes. 

18. Valleys. 

19. Sheep. 

20. Oxen. 

21. Sheaves. 

22. Wolves. 

23. Duties. 

24. Brethren. 



25. Mice. 

26. Dice. 

27. Dies. 

28. Handfuls. 

29. Mouthfuls. 

30. Spoonfuls. 

31. Species. 

32. Series. 



In the word flies the y of the singularly is changed into i according to the 
rule for such derivatives. (See Lesson XV.) 



-GENDERS. 

queen — boy, girl — 



LESSON XLII. 
MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS. 

Father, mother — brother, sister — king, 
man, woman. 

How does each pair of these nouns differ ? 

One is the name of a male, and the other the name of a 
female. 



60 MODIFICATION OF NOUNS.— GENDERS. 

The modifications of nouns that distinguish the sex which 
they denote are called genders. 

The names of males are of the masculine gender. 
The names of females are of the feminine gender. 

Which of the above nouns are of the masculine gender ? 
Which are of the feminine gender ? 

The names of things that are without sex are of the 
neuter gender. 

The word neuter means neither, that is, neither masculine nor feminine. 

Of this gender are such nouns as book, pen, water, truth, knowl- 
edge ; that is, the names of things, which are neither male nor fe- 
male. 

Names that may be used to denote either males or females 
are often said to be of the common gender. 

Of the latter class are such nouns as parent, child, friend, 
cousin, person, animal, etc., which may be applied to a male or 
a female. They are names that are common to both sexes. 

How does sex differ from gender ? 

Sex is the distinction between male and female, but gender 
is the distinction of nouns in regard to the sex which they 
denote. 

There are four classes of nouns in regard to the sex which 
they denote : 1, The names of males ; 2, The names of fe- 
males ; 3, The names of things without sex ; 4, Names that 
are common to males and females. 

The gender of nouns is expressed in three different ways : — 

1. By different words ; as, bachelor, maid ; boy, girl; buck, doe ; 
bull, cow. 

2. By different inflections, or terminations ; as, abbot, abbess ; 
actor, actress ; hero, heroine ; janitor, janitrix ; executor, executrix. 

3. By compound words; as, cock-span'ow, hen-sjxxrrow ; man- 
servant, maid-servant ; he-goat, she-goat. 



MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. — CASES. 



61 



Exercise. 



Copy the following list of nouns, and at the right of 
gender. 

1. Soldier. 7. Carpenter 

2. Lawyer. 8. Farmer. 

3. Husband. 9. Parent. 

4. Vessel. 10. Ocean. 

5. Heroine. 11. Bachelor. 

6. Neighbor. 12. Building. 



write the 



13. Servant. 19. Coachman. 

14. Seamstress. 20. Spinster. 

15. Children. 21. Captain. 

16. Candor. 22. Janitrix. 

17. Editor. 23. Women. 

18. Cousin. 24. Science. 



LESSON XLIII. 
MODIFICATIONS OF NOUNS.— CASES. 

Nouns have another kind of modification, called cases. 

Cases distinguish the use of the noun as the subject, object, 
or attribute, or as the name of an owner or possessor. 

The subject noun is in the nominative case. 

The object of a verb, participle, or preposition, is in the 
objective case. 

A noun used as the name of an owner or possessor is in the 
possessive case. 

Example. — William gave John's booh to Mary. 

In this sentence, William is in the nominative case, because it 
is the subject ; John's is in the possessive case, because it denotes 
the possessor, or owner, of the book ; book is in the objective case, 
because it is the object of the verb gave ; and Mary is also in the 
objective case, because it is the object of the proposition to. 

The possessive case does not always imply actual possession or 
ownership, but sometimes a different though similar relation. It 
may be represented by various prepositions. Thus : " The man's 
house," equivalent to, " The house of the man." — " Ladies' gloves," 



62 MODIFICATION" OF NOUNS. — CASES. 

or, " Gloves for ladies." — " Three years' work," or, " "Work during 
three years." — "Homer's poems," or, "Poems by Homer." — 
" Webster's Dictionary," or, " The Dictionary by Webster." 

The attribute noun has the same case as the sub- 
ject noun. 

The case modifications of nouns require no inflections, ex- 
cept that the possessive case is indicated by the addition of s 
with the apostrophe ['] before it. 

When the plural form of the noun ends in s, the apostrophe 
only is added. 

The following are examples of possessive forms : — 



Singular. 


Plural. 


1. Friend's, 


Friends' 


2. Man's, 


Men's. 


3. Fox's, 


Foxes'. 


4. Fly's, 


Flies'. 



Singular. Plural. 

5. Sheep's, Sheep's. 



6. Prince's, 

7. Princess's, 

8. James's. 



Princes'. 
Princesses', 



How many cases are there ? 

What are they called ? 

How many and what modifications have nouns ? 



Exercises. 

Show by diagram the analysis of the following sentences, andjyarse 
each word, stating the classes and modifications of each of the nouns. 

Model. 

Edgar found in the tree a bird's nest having several pretty eggs 
in it. 



Edgar 



the 



found 

| in j^ 
I tree bird'; 



nest 



having 
I in several 
*£ pretty 



eggs. 



MODIFICATION OF NOUNS. — CASES. 63 

Passing. 

Edgar is a proper noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verh fomid. 

Tree is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter 
gender, and the objective case, because it is the object of the preposition in. 

Nest is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gen- 
der, and the objective case, because it is the object of the verb found. 

Bird's is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, common 
gender, because the name bird is common to both sexes, and the possessive 
case, because it denotes the possession of nest. 

Eggs is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, 
and the objective case, because it is the object of the participle having. 

1. Arnold's treason was fortunately discovered in time. 

2. Washington's patriotism preserved the liberty of his country. 

3. The teacher told Henry's parents of his misconduct. 

4. James's new book was lost somewhere in the street. 

5. A true friend will always bear with his friend's infirmities. 

6. A faithful servant constantly studies his master's interests. 



Review Questions. 

Into what two general classes are nouns divided ? What is a 
proper noun ? A common noun ? What classes are included 
among common nouns ? What is a collective noun ? A participial 
noun ? What are modifications ? How many modifications have 
nouns ? What are persons ? How many persons are there, and 
what are they called ? What is the first person ? The second per- 
son? The third person? What are numbers? How many are 
there ? What is the singular number ? What is the plural num- 
ber? How is the plural number of nouns formed? What is an 
inflection? What are genders? What is the masculine gender? 
The feminine gender ? The neuter gender ? The common gen- 
der ? How is the gender of nouns expressed ? What is the nomi- 
native case? The possessive case? The objective case? In 
what case is the attribute ? How is the possessive case indicated ? 
How may cases be defined? 

Ans. Cases are those modifications that distinguish the rela- 
tions of nouns to other words. 



64 CONSTRUCTION AND COMPOSITION. 

LESSON XLIV. 

CONSTRUCTION AND COMPOSITION. 

The combination of words into sentences is called con- 
struction. 

Construction is the reverse of analysis. By taking apart prop- 
erly constructed sentences, we learn how to put them together 
correctly. Hence the need of practice in both processes. 

The combination of sentences to express our thoughts upon 
any particular subject is called composition. 

Construct the following : — 

1. A sentence containing a noun, a verb, and adjuncts of each. 

2. A sentence containing a subject noun, a predicate verb, and an 
object having one or more adjuncts. 

3. A sentence with a subject pronoun, a predicate verb, and an at- 
tribute noun, with adjuncts. 

4. A sentence with an adjective attribute. 

5. A sentence having one or more prepositional phrases. 

These sentences which you have constructed do not form a composition, 
because the thoughts which they express are not related to one another, and 
do not refer to one particular subject. 

The following sentences, all having reference to the same subject, and ax- 
pressing a connected series of ideas, form a composition upon Trees. 



Trees are beautiful productions of nature. How grand and 
stately are their forms ! How wonderful is their growth ! How 
pleasant is the sliade of a thick and wide-spreading oak on a hot 
summer's clay ! Have you ever enjoyed this delightful refresh- 
ment ? The rustling of the leaves in the breeze is sweet music to 
the ear. 

How many sentences are there in this composition ? 
Of what kind is each ? 

Write the analysis of each in diagram form. 



COMPOSITION. 65 



Example. 

I rustling is 

TIie 1 | of f irT " " ~j"to sweet 

I breeze I ear 



the 1 the | the | 

What does the double-dotted line denote ? The straight Line 
after the predicate verb ? "What relation does the preposition of 
express, as shown by the perpendicular line ? The preposition 
in ? The preposition to ? How many word adjuncts are there in 
the sentence ? How many phrase adjuncts ? What are they ? 



LESSON XLV. 
COMPOSITION. 



Write five sentences describing an elephant. 
Write six sentences about a. lion. 
Write six sentences about a dog. 

Write several sentences forming a short composition upon The 
Cat. 

Directions. — 1. Do not use the same word too often. 

2. Avoid all vulgar, coarse expressions (slang). 

3. Mingle long with short sentences, and do not use too many 
of the latter. 

4. Place the adjuncts as near as possible to the words to which 
they belong. 

5. Be careful not to use capitals when they are not required. 

6. The letters / and 0, when used as words, should always be 
capitals. 

Example op a Faulty Composition. 

The Hof.se. 

The horse is a large Quadruped he is a useful animal. Some 

men handle their horses very Fine. Some men are dreadfully 

cruel to their horses. The Horse can be trained easily and made 

to work. Most horses are only good to draw big loads. Some 

5 



66 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

horses run awful fast. These are used in Races, & men bet on 
them. Sometimes they lose a pile of money. Once i rode on a 
horse and o my, how fast he went. I expect when I grow up i 
shall get a horse. 

Faults. — Many words are repeated. There are too many short 
sentences. Adjeetives are used for adverbs, as fine and awful. 
There are mistakes in capitals and punctuation ; and some of the 
expressions are coarse and vulgar. The arrangement of ideas may 
be improved. Compare it carefully with the following. 

The Hokse. 

The horse is a large and useful quadruped. He can be easily 
trained and made to work. Many horses are good only to draw 
heavy loads, but others are veiy swift. These are used in the 
race-course, and men often make large bets upon their speed. 
Some persons treat their horses with great care and kindness. 
Others are very harsh and cruel to them. Once I rode upon a 
horse, and, O, how swiftly I went along ! I hope when I have 
grown up I shall have a horse of my own. 

Write similar short comj^osilions on — 

The Cow. The Camel. The Whale. The Ship. The Steam- 
engine. Washington. Columbus. Abraham Lincoln. 

The writing of these and similar compositions can be performed while the 
following lessens are studied, the design being to keep the pupil employed in 
the actual use of language. The teacher should require the pupils to analyze, 
as frequently as possible, the sentences of their own compositions. 



LESSON XLVI. 
CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Some adjectives are used only to describe the quality of 
persons or things, such as good, bad, peaceful, warlike ; or 
their situation, as eastern, western, outer, inner. 

Such adjectives are called common adjectives. 

Adjectives formed from proper names are called proper 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 67 

adjectives ; as, American, English, European, Indian, Wash- 
ingtonian. 

Adjectives that express a definite, or exact, number are 
numeral adjectives ; as, one, two, three, ten, tiventy, 
twenty-one, etc. 

Numeral adjectives sometimes express numerical order ; as, 
first, second, third, etc. 

Others express numerical groups ; as, single, double or two/old, 
triple or three/old, etc. 

Adjectives sometimes serve only to point out, define, or 
distinguish, and not to describe, or state the quality of, the 
person or thing referred to. 

Examples of these are each, both, this, and that. 
m These adjectives may either be placed before the nouns to 
which they refer, or may represent them, like pronouns. 
Thus :— 

That (statement) is untrue. Tliis (thing) is new. Both (per- 
sons) are guilty. Each (person) confessed. 

Adjectives of this -kind are called pronominal ad- 
jectives. 

Pronominal means like a, pronoun. 

The following is a list of pronominal adjectives : — 

All, any, both, each, either, every, few, former, first, latter, last, 

many, neither, none, one, other, same, some, such, this, that, which, 

and what. 

What is a pronominal adjective ? 

A pronominal adjective is a definitive word which 
may either accompany its noun or represent it under- 
stood. 

Definitive words are words that serve to define, limit, or distin- 
guish ; such as articles and the adjectives called pronominal. 

Adjectives that have the form of participles are called 
participial adjectives. 



68 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Participial adjectives differ from participles in not at all partak- 
ing in the nature of the verb. They merely describe, or express 
quality; as, "A trying position." — "A waxed thread." — "The 
rising sun." — " A frozen river." 

In the sentence, A running horse will sometimes stumble, the 
word running is an adjective ; but in the sentence, A horse run- 
ning rapidly stumbled, the word running is a participle. 

Adjectives that consist of two or more words joined by a 
hyphen are called compound adjectives; as four- 
footed, fresh-looking, dark-eyed. 

How many kinds of adjectives are there ? 
What are they called ? 

Exercises. 

1. Classify the adjectives in the following expressions. 

Write the adjective, and after it the name of the class to which it belongs. 

The same person. 

Such is the fact. 

All are responsible. 

This is true. 

The Austrian government. 

16. Shakspearean style. 

17. The nineteenth century. 

8. The French language. 18. Those poor persons. 

9. A single person. 19. Old-fashioned dresses. 
10. The seventh king. 20. Both are bad boys. 

21. The last Koman king. 

2. Write sentences each containing an example of one or more 
of adjectives. 

Direction. — Proper adjectives, like proper nouns, should begin 
with ii capital letter. 



1. 


Good children. 


11. 


2. 


Pleasant weather. 


12. 


3. 


Interesting books. 


13. 


4. 


Roman soldiers. 


14. 


5. 


Triple time. 


15. 


C. 


Charming music. 


16. 


7. 


Barking dogs. 


17. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 69 

LESSON XL VII. 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives are varied in form in order to express the differ- 
ent degrees of quality in objects compared with one another. 

Thus we may say : "Iron is heavy, lead is heavier, but gold is 
the heaviest of these three metals ; while platinum is the heaviest 
of all metals." 

The variation of the form of the adjective to express 
quality in different degrees is called comparison. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, 
the comparative, and the superlative. 

The positive degree is expressed by the adjective in 
its simple form. 

Thus heavy, in the above sentence, is of the positive degree. 
The quality of heaviness as existing in iron is taken as a standard 
of comparison with the other metals referred to. 

The comparative degree is that which exceeds the 
positive. 

Thus we say, " Lead is heavier than iron ; gold is heavier than 
lead ; but platinum is heavier than gold." The comparative de- 
gree can be used only when two objects are compared. 

The superlative degree is that which is not ex- 
ceeded. 

The superlative degree implies the comparison of three or more 
objects, and expresses a superiority to all others compared. 

Thus gold is the heaviest of the three metals, iron, lead, and 
gold, but platinum is the heaviest of all metals. 

The regular form of comparison is by adding to 
the positive er to form the comparative, and est to form the 
superlative. Thus : — 



70 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 



Positive. 


( 'omparative. 


Superlative. 


hard 


harder 


hardest 


•wide 


wider 


widest 


hot 


hotter 


hottest 


simple 


simpler 


simplest 



As will be seen, when the positive ends in e, r only is added. 

There are several irregular modes of comparison ; as, good, 
better, best; bad or ill, worse, worst; little, less, least; much 
or many, more, most ; far, farther, farthest ; late, later or lat- 
ter, latest or last. 

Only monosyllables and dissyllables which end in y or mute 
e can, with few exceptions, be regularly compared. 

Other adjectives are compared by using the adverbs more 
and most ; as, virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. This is, 
of course, not a variation of the adjective. 

Diminution of quality is expressed by the adverbs less and 
least. Thus : diligent, less diligent, least diligent. 

Adjectives that do not express quality cannot be compared, 
nor any adjective whose signification does not admit of de- 
grees ; as, central, equal, total, perfect, infinite, eternal. 

The termination ish is sometimes used to imply a quality infe- 
rior to the positive ; as, reddish, meaning somewhat red. 

The adjectives this arid that change their form to express the 
plural number. Thus, this man, these men; that book; these books. 

Exercise. 

Write tlie comparison of the following adjectives, regtdarly, irreg- 
ularly, or by means of adverbs, as each may require. 



1. 


Short. 


7. 


Many. 


13. 


Narrow. 


19. 


111. 


2. 


Soft. 


8. 


Noble. 


11. 


Useful. 


20. 


Severe. 


3. 


Small. 


9. 


Gentle. 


15. 


Unkind. 


21. 


Amiable. 


4. 


Late. 


10. 


Famous. 


16. 


Wicked. 


22. 


Amusing. 


5. 


Few. 


11. 


Early. 


17. 


Pleasant. 


23. 


Agreeable. 


6. 


Happy. 


12. 


Little. 


18. 


Idle. 


24. 


Elegant. 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 71 

LESSON XL VIII. 
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Any combination of the subject and predicate forms what 
is called a proposition. 

A simple sentence is one thafr contains only a sin- 
gle proposition. 

Examples. — Kiches have wings. — I laugh and weep. — The sun 
and moon give us light. 

In each of these sentences there is but one proposition or com- 
bination of subject and predicate, though in some there may be 
more than one subject noun or predicate verb, since the subject or 
predicate of a proposition may be simple or compound. (See 
Lesson XXXVII.) 

A compound sentence is one that is composed of 
two or more simple sentences, connected by a conjunction. 

Examples. 

1. Art is long, and time is fleeting. 

2. Home is home, though it be ever so homely. 

3. Life is short, but it is followed by eternity. 

4. Virtue is its own reward, and vice brings its own punish- 
ment. 

5. Hatred stirreth up strifes, but love covereth all sins. 

6. The tulip is a gorgeous flower, the lily is a beautiful one, 
but the rose is the fairest of all. 

A sentence that forms a part of a sentence is called a 
clause. 

How many clauses are there in each of the above sentences ? 

Exercise. 

Write in diagram form the analysis of each of the above sentences ; 
analyze them orally, and parse the icords in each. (See example of 
written exercise below.) 



72 



SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



Example Analyzed. 

" Avoid not the struggle for truth, though it be ever so for- 
midable." 



(Thou or you) . 


— avoid 1 

1 not 




1 struggle 
"the 1 | for 
truth 




it be 




formidable. 






so 






ever 







The pupil will observe how the secondary adjunct ever (adjunct of an ad- 
junct) is represented. 

Oral Analysis. — This is a compound imperative sentence, consisting of 
the clauses, Avoid not the struggle for truth, and be it ever so formidable, 
connected by the conjunction though. The separate clauses are to be ana- 
lyzed as in preceding examples. 



Written Exercises in Parsing. 
The following affords a model for these exercises. 



Word. 


Part of 
Speech. 


Class. 


Modifications. 


Relation. 


Avoid 


Verb. 






Predicate. 


Not 


Adverb. 






Adj't of avoid. 


The 


Article. 


Def. 




Adj't of truth. 


Struggle 


Noun. 


Com. 


3d, Sing., N., Obj. 


Obj. of avoid. 


For 


Preposition. 






Struggle and truth. 


Truth 


Noun. 


Com. 


3d, Sing., N., Obj. 


Obj. of for. 


Though 


Conjunction. 






Cong, clauses. 


It 


Pronoun. 






Sub. of be. 


Be 


Verb. 






Pred. of 2d clause. 


Ever 


Adverb. 






Adj't of so. 


So 


Adverb. 






Adj't of formidable. 


Formidable 


Adjective. 






Att. after be. 



Questions for Review. 

What is construction ? What is composition ? How many 
classes of adjectives ? What are they ? What is a common adjec- 
tive? Ans. A common adjective is one that simply denotes 
cpaality or situation. What is a proper adjective? A numeral 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 73 

adjective ? A pronominal adjective ? A participial adjective ? A 
compound adjective ? What is comparison ? How many degrees 
of comparison ? Positive degree ? Comparative degree ? Super- 
lative degree ? What is the regular form of comparison ? What 
adjectives can be regularly compared ? What adjectives vary their 
form to express the plural ? What is a proposition ? A simple 
sentence ? A compound sentence ? A clause ? 



LESSON XLIX. 
CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have the same modifications as nouns ; namely, 
persons, numbers, genders, and cases. 

Some pronouns show by their form that they are of the 
first, second, or third person. 

Thus the pronoun I always stands for the speaker ; thou, for the 
person spoken to ; and he, she, or it, for the person or thing spoken 
of. 

A pronoun that shows by its form of what person it is, is 
called a personal pronoun. 

The personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it, 

with their variations. 

When a pronoun is used in one clause of a sentence to 
represent a noun or pronoun in a preceding clause, and thus 
connects the clauses, it is called a relative pronoun. 

The word which the relative pronoun represents, or to 
which it relates, is called its antecedent. 

Thus in the sentence, The flowers which bloom in the spring are 
beautiful, there are two clauses : The flowers are beautiful, and 
which bloom in the spring. The word which, representing the an- 
tecedent word flowers, is the subject of the second clause; and in 



74 CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

this way it serves to connect the two clauses. Hence we may give 
the following definition of a relative pronoun : — 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that represents 
an antecedent word, and connects different clauses of a 
sentence. 

The person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun are 
the same as those of the antecedent word which it represents. 

The simple relative pronouns are, \oho, which, what, and 
that. 

The words icho, ivhich, and what are also used in asking 
questions, and are then called interrogative pronouns ; 
as, " Who is there ? " — " What did you say ? " — " Which will 
you have ? " 

There are, therefore, three classes of pronouns ; namely, 
personal, relative, and interrogative. 

Who is usually applied to persons only; which, though for- 
merly applied to persons, is now confined to brute animals and in- 
animate things ; what, as a mere pronoun, is applied to things 
only ; that is applied indifferently to persons, animals, and 
things. 

Exercise. 

Write in diagram form the analysis of the sentences given below ; 
and write in the form prescribed in the preceding lesson the parsing of 
each xoord, classifying the pronouns. 

Model. 
Napoleon, who made so many conquests, was during six years a 
captive in St. Helena. 

Napoleon was I captive 

I during j in £ 

I years St. Helena. 

six I " ■ 

who made I conquests 

i many 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 75 

Oral Parsing. — Who is a relative pronoun, the antecedent of which is 
Napoleon, and is, therefore, of the third person, singular number, and mas- 
culine gender ; and it is in the nominative case, because it is the subject of 
the verb made. 

1. Washington, who was a true patriot, is admired by all. 

2. Arnold, who betrayed his country, is universally despised. 

3. James's book, which was given to him by his father, was lost. 

4. I, who saw the whole affair, will explain it fully. 

5. Jupiter, which is the largest of the planets, has four satellites. 

6. Eome, which was once the mistress of the world, was pil- 
laged by the barbarous Vandals. 



LESSON L. 
DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

The modifications of personal pronouns are expressed by 
variations of form, or by different words. 

Thus the pronoun of the first person, singular number, is I in 
the nominative case, and me in the objective case ; but in the 
plural number it is we in the nominative case, and us in the ob- 
jective case. 

A regular arrangement of these forms, according to number 
and case, is called declension. 

Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 

I, of the first person. 
Sing. Norn. I. Plur. Nom. we, 

Poss. my, or mine, Poss. our, or ours, 

Obj. me ; Obj. us. 

Thou, of the second person. 
Sing. Nom. thou, Plur. Nom. ye, or you, 

Poss. thy, or thine, Poss. your, or yours, 

Obj. thee ; Obj. you. 



76 DIFFERENT FORMS OF PRONOUNS. 

He, of the third person. 

Sing. Nom. he, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. his, Poss. their, or theirs, 

Obj. him ; Obj. them. 

She, of the third person. 

Sing. Nom. she, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. her, or hers, Poss. their, or theirs, 

C%'. her ; Obj. them. 

It, of the third person. 

Sing. JVbra. it, Plur. Nom. they, 

Poss. its, Poss. their, o?* theirs, 

Obj. it; 0#. them. 

The puj^il should observe that the plural forms of he, she, and 
it are the same. 

The gender is distinguished by the form only in the third person 
singular. All the other forms are common ; that is, the forms 
they, their or theirs, and them aie used to represent nouns whether 
masculine, feminine, or neuter. 

Of the relative and interrogative pronouns, -who is the only one 
that changes its form, becoming ichose in the possessive case, and 
whom in the objective. These forms are both singular and plural. 

That, which, and what cannot be used in the possessive case. 
The phrase of which is used instead of the possessive ; as, " He 
found a watch the owner of which was not known." 

Exercises. 

1. Write the nominative plural of I, thou, he, she, it. 

2. Write the objective singular of the same. 

3. Write the possessive singidar and plural of each. 

4. Write jive simple sentences, each containing one of the objective 
plural forms of the simple personal proyiowis. 

5. Write sentences each containing mine, thine, ours, yours, or 
theirs. 

6. Write three sentences, each containing the pronoun whose. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 77 

LESSON LI. 

COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The compound personal pronouns are myself, 
thyself, himself, herself, and itself. 

These pronouns are not used at all in the possessive case, and 
in the nominative and objective have the same form. They differ 
only in the singular and plural. Thus : — 

Sing, myself, thyself, himself, herself, itself. 



Plur. ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

As you generally takes the place of thou, yourself is used in the 
singular number for thyself; as, "You (sing.) have condemned 
yourself." — "You (plural) must respect yourselves." 

The compound personal pronouns are used when the object 
or attribute refers to the same person or thing ; as, "I defended 
myself." — "He injured himself" — " The man was not himself at the 
time." 

A preposition sometimes intervenes; as, "He spoke for him- 
self." — " She took it upon herself." 

Sometimes they are used only for emphasis ; as, " He himself 
is to blame." — " We ourselves are guilty." 



Exercises, 

1. Write three simple sentences, each containing one of the com- 
pound personal pronouns of the singular number. 

2. Write three simple sentences, each containing a compound per- 
sonal pronoun of the plural number. 

3. Analyze by diagram the folio wing sentences, and write the pars- 
ing. 

1. He gave himself up to vicious indulgences. 

2. Good persons will often sacrifice themselves for the benefit 
of others. 



78 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS. 

3. The unhappy mother greatly censured herself for her cai'eless- 
ness. 

4. We should keep a constant watch upon ourselves, if we 
would avoid errors of conduct. 

5. They rashly and weakly surrendered themselves to the 
enemy upon the first attack. 

G. Remorse for evil conduct resembles the fabled scorpion, for 
it stings itself to death. 

Questions for Review. 

What modifications have pronouns ? How many classes of pro- 
nouns are there ? What is a personal pronoun ? A relative pro- 
noun ? An interrogative pronoun ? What are the simple personal 
pronouns ? The compound personal pronouns ? The simple rel- 
ative pronouns ? The interrogative pronouns? How are the rel- 
ative pronouns applied ? What is declension ? Decline each of 
the simple personal pronouns. Which of the relative pronouns 
changes its form ? What variations have the compound personal 
pronouns ? How are they used ? 



LESSON LII. 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS. 

Adjuncts may be words, phrases, or clauses. Thus: — 

1. A truthful boy is believed. 

2. A boy of truth is believed. 

3. A boy who tells the truth is believed. 

In Sentence 1, the subject noun, boy, has a word adjunct, truth- 
ful; in 2, it has a phrase adjunct, of truth ; and in 3, it has a 
clause adjunct, irho tells the truth. Each of these is an adjective ad- 
junct, having the same meaning. 

Adjuncts modify, describe, or explain, and are, accordingly, 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS. 79 

called modifying adjuncts, descriptive ad- 
juncts, or explanatory adjuncts. 



The following are examples :- 
Modifying Adjuncts. 

1. An honest man. 

2. The brave soldier. 

3. A man of integrity. 

4. A boy who is studious. 



Descriptive Adjuncts. 

5. The sagacious elephant. 

6. The busy bee. 

7. The owl, fond of darkness. 

8. John, who is studious. 



A modifying adjunct is one used to distinguish the 
person or thing named from others of the same class or 
kind. 

A descriptive adjunct is one that describes an in- 
dividual, or expresses a quality that belongs to all of the 
same class or kind. 

In the above examples, the adjuncts honest and brave express 
qualities that do not belong to all men or all soldiers ; but saga- 
cious and busy are common to the whole class, for all elephants are 
sagacious, and all bees are busy ; as all owls are fond of dark- 
ness. The clause who is studious modifies boy, because it serves to 
distinguish him from other boys ; but when it is applied to the 
proper noun John, it merely describes him as an individual. 

An explanatory adjunct is a noun, pronoun, 
phrase, or clause used to explain a preceding noun or pro- 
noun. 

The following sentences contain examples : — 

1. Is your sister Mary present ? 

2. Nero, the Roman emperor, was very cruel. 

3. How can I, your brother, help you ? 

4. It is very useful to study grammar. 

5. It is not proper that you should go. 

In Sentence 1, the noun Mary is an explanatory adjunct of 
sister .- in 2, the phrase the Roman emperor is an explanatory ail- 



80 DIFFERENT KINDS OF ADJUNCTS. 

juiict of Nero ; iu 3, your brother is an explanatory adjunct of I ; 
in 4, the phrase to study grammar is an explanatory adjunct of 
the pronoun it ; and in 5, the clause that you should go is explan- 
atory of it. 

Explanatory adjuncts are said to be in apposition with 
the noun or pronoun which they explain. 

Punctuation. — 1. Descriptive phrase or clause adjuncts 
should be separated by the comma. 

2. Explanatory adjuncts should be separated by the comma 
(see Sentences 2 and 3) ; but not when the word and its ad- 
junct (as in Sentence 1) form a single name or phrase, or in 
such phrase or clause adjuncts as those in 4 or 5. 



Exercises. 

1. Classify the adjuncts in the following phrases, and write a list 
of each. 

1. An obedient child. 2. The fierce tiger. 3. An industrious 
man. 4. The sly cat. 5. Mortal men. 6. A man of energy. 7. 
William, my brother. 8. My brother Charles. 9. Man, who is 
mortal. 10. Sinful men. 11. Hope, that never leaves us. 12. 
Cowper, the poet. 13. We, who are innocent. 14. A boy who 
loves to study. 15. Life, that is so short. 16. Fleeting time. 

2. Write sentences containing one or more of these phrases, and 
punctuate as directed. 

3. Analyze by diagram each of the phrases. 

Models. 



Man, who is mortal. William, my brother. 

brother. 



Man I William 

who is mortal. 



my 

The double Btraight perpendicular line always indicates an explanatory ad- 
junct, or the relation called apposition. 



ADVEKBIAL ADJUNCTS. 81 

LESSON LIII. 
ADVERBIAL ADJUNCTS. 

An adverbial adjunct may be a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. Thus : — 

1. The work was done promptly. 

2. The work was done in a short time. 

3. The work will be done when I have the time. 

What is the adverbial adjunct in Sentence 1 ? 
What phrase is used as an adjunct in 2? 
What clause is used as an adjunct in 3 ? 

A clause used as an adjunct is called a dependent 
clause. 

A dependent clause may also be used as the subject, object, 
or attribute of a sentence. 

Examples. 

1. (Subject). — That the earth is round is well known. 

2. (Object). — Columbus believed that the earth is round. 

3. (Attribute) . — His belief was that the earth is round. 

5. (Adjunct). — He believed it more strongly when he landed on 
St. Salvador. 

The clause upon which another clause depends is called the 
principal clause. 

The clauses of a sentence that are connected merely by 
conjunctions without dependence are called independent 
clauses. (See Examples in Lesson XLVIII.) 

In Sentence 3, The ivorlc will be done is the principal clause, and 
when 1 have the time is the dependent clause, this clause being used 
as an adjunct of the predicate verb will he done. The adverb token 
is an adjunct cf have, and serves to connect the two clauses. This 
is illustrated in the following diagram. 



82 COMPLEX SENTENCES. 



work . . will be done ' 
The """" when 



have time. 

thel 



Adverbs that connect the clauses of a sentence are called 
conjunctive adverbs. 

There are several words used as conjunctive adverbs : as, when, 
where, after, before, since, etc. 

Exercise. 

Put in diagram form the following sentences : — 

1. Where is your book? (Transpose first into, Your book is 
where ?) 

2. At what place did you leave it ? 

3. When did you use it last ? 

4. Seek for it where you left it. 

5. Can you not find it in your desk ? 

6. It was taken away after I left it there. 

7. I will find it before I come back. 

8. I hope that I shall not be disappointed. 



LESSON LIV. 
COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

A sentence that is composed of a principal clause, and one 
or more dependent clauses, is called a complex sentence. 

Compound sentences are composed of independent clauses. 
(See Lesson XLVTIL) 

A clause introduced by a relative pronoun is called a rela- 
tive clause. Relative clauses are always adjective adjuncts. 

The examples given in Lesson XL1X. are all descriptive clauses ; 



COMPLEX SENTENCES. S3 

the sentences given below contain examples of both modifying 
and descriptive adjuncts. 

Punctuation. — Relative clauses when modifiers should not 
be preceded by the comma. (See Lesson XLIX.) 

Examples of Complex Sentences. 

1. Children who disobey their parents deserve punishment. 

2. He that walketh uprightly walketh surely. 

3. Caesar, who won so many victories, was assassinated. 

4. Eeverence your parents, from whom you have received so 
many benefits. 

5. The event which was predicted long before has occurred in a 
surprising manner. 

6. Can a boy that habitually tells falsehoods be trusted by any 
one? 

7. How beautiful was the prospect upon which we then gazed ! 



The 



Example 7, Analyzed. 

prospect _ _ was | beautiful, 

how 
I we _ _ gazed 

"^ then" I I.T° n 
' which 



This diagram is designed to represent that the clause, upon which we then 
gazed, is used as an adjunct of the noun prospect, while the phrase upon 
which is an adjunct of the verb gazed. The dotted line in continuation of the 
adjunct line shows the connective and relative character of the pronoun. 

Okal Analysis. — This is a complex exclamatory sentence, of which IIoxo 
beautiful toas the project is the principal clause, and upon which wc then 
gazed, is the dependent clause, being used as an adjunct of the noun prosi>ect. 
[Each clause to be analyzed as in the preceding examples. ] 

Exercises. 

1. In a similar manner analyze, by diagram and orally, each of 
the above sentences. 

2. Prepare a written, parsing exercise of Sentences 1 and 2. (See 
lesson XLVIIL) 



84 CONSTRUCTION — REVIEW. 

LESSON LV. 
CONSTRUCTION.— REVIEW. 

1. Write three compound sentences, each consisting of two simple 
clauses connected by and or but. 

Example. — John is diligent, but his brother is idle. 

2. Write three complex sentences, each containing a relative clause. 
For examples see Lessons XLIX. and LIV. 

Punctuation. — 1. The simple clauses composing a com- 
pound sentence should be separated by a comma. 

2. The relative clause should be preceded and followed by 
a comma, except when it is a modifying clause. 

3. Write complex sentences, each containing one of the following 
used as an adjunct clause. 

1. "When summer comes. 2. While I was away. 3. Which Lis 
mother gave him. 4. That I ever saw. 5. Before he came here. 
6. Until his father returned. 

4. Insert a relative clause to fill the blank in each of the following 
sentences. 

1. The book was lost. 2. He would not learn the lesson 

. 3. The horse was caught by a policeman. 4. 

Time can never be regained. 5. He is guilty of 

great 'wrong. 6. The bee stung his hand. 7. Charles 

caught the bird . 

Questions for Review, 

What may be used as adjuncts ? Of how many kinds are ad- 
juncts ? What is a modifying adjunct? WTiat is a descriptive 
adjunct ? An explanatory adjunct ? An adverbial adjunct ? 
What is a dependent clause ? What is the principal clause ? 
What arc independent clauses? What are conjunctive adverbs ? 
What is a complex sentence ? What is a relative clause ? When 
does a relative clause require the comma ? 



CONSTRUCTION. 85 

LESSON LVI. 
CONSTRUCTION.— Continued. 

When a relative clause is a modifying adjunct it can usu- 
ally be changed to an adjective or participle, thus changing 
the complex sentence into one that is simple. 

Thus we may change the complex sentence, A pupil who is dili- 
gent will excel, into the simple sentence, A diligent pupil will excel. 

Sometimes a phrase consisting of a noun and an adjective 
may be used instead of a relative clause and the antecedent. 

Thus, He who labors faithfully will succeed, may be changed to, 
A faithful laborer will succeed. 

Change the following complex into simple sentences, by either of the 
above methods. 

1. A man who acts honorably will be respected. 

2. Children who are stubborn are controlled with difficulty. 

3. A figure that has three sides is called a triangle. 

4. He who studies faithfully will gain knowledge. 

5. They who do wrong repent of it, sooner or later. 

When the relative clause is not a modifying adjunct, the 
complex sentence may be made compound, by using a per- 
sonal pronoun and an adjective for the relative. 

Thus, John, who won the prize, 'worked very hard, may be changed 
to, John worked very hard, and he won the prize. Or, we might say, 
John won the prize, bid he worked very hard for it. 

Change in this manner the following complex to compound sen- 
tences, using the conjunction indicated for each case. 

1. Mr. Smith, who was ill, has recovered. [i??rf.] 

2. Washington, who was a true patriot, saved his country. 
[And.] 

3. William, who has told so many falsehoods, cannot now be 
believed. [Because.] 

4. I, who was wholly innocent, was condemned. [Though.] 

5. You, who know nothing of it, are suspected. [And yet.] 



8G COMPOUND RELATIVE PKONOUNS. 

LESSON LVII. 
COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

1. He who does wrong toill suffer. 

2. Any one who does wrong will suffer. 

3. Whoever does wrong will suffer. 

In the Sentences 1 and 2, which is the principal and which the 
dejDendent clause ? 

How many clauses are there in Sentence 3 ? 

There are two clauses, the word whoever being equivalent 
to he who or to any one who ; that is, to both the antecedent 
and the relative. 

The following sentences contain words used in the same 
way:— 

1. Whoever, or ivhosoever, does wrong will surely repent of 
it. 

2. Whomever, or ivhomsoever, he found trespassing he pun- 
ished. 

3. Whichever, or whichsoever, you desire I will give you. 

4. Whatever, or whatsoever, j t ou request you will obtain. 

5. His father will cheerfully give him what he needs. 

Explanation. — In Sentence 1, whoever or whosoever is equiva- 
lent to he who. It is both the antecedent and the relative. In 2, 
whomever or ivhomsoever is the same in meaning as him whom. 
{He punished whomsoever he found.) In 3, whichever or whichsoever 
is the same as that which or anything which. In 4, whatever or 
whatsoever has the same meaning. 

The words whoever or whosoever, whichever or whichsoever, 
and whatever or whatsoever are called compound relative 
pronouns. 

The relative pronoun what, though simple in form, is com- 
pound in office. (See Sentence 5.) 



COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



87 



Compound relative pronouns are such as have a 
twofold relation, or office, serving for the antecedent in one 
clause of a sentence and for the relative pronoun in the other. 



Exercise. 

Analyze in diagram form the five sentences 
3 separate words, orally or by written exercise. 



above. Parse 



Model. 
Always do whatever your parents command. 



You) 

always 



do 



whatever 



your 



command. 



The double line underneath whatever indicates its twofold relation to the 
The dotted line before whatever denotes that the clause is the object 
of the verb do ; and that following it denotes that it is the object in its own 



Oral, Analysis. — A complex imperative sentence, consisting of two 
clauses, of which Always do is the principal clause, and whatever your par- 
ents command is the dependent clause, being the object of the verb do. 

Okal Parsing. — Whatever is a double relative pronoun, of the third per- 
son, singular number, neuter gender, and the objective case, being the object 
of the verb command, in the object clause. (It may be also considered as the 
object of both the verbs do and command ; or may be analyzed into the ante- 
cedent that and the relative whichever, the former being the object of do, and 
the latter of command. ) 



Written Parsing. 



Word. 


Part of 
Speech. 


Class. 


Modification. 


Eelation. 


Always 


Adverb. 


Of time. 




Adj't of do. 


Do 


Verb. 






Pred. Verb. 


Whatever 


Pronoun. 


Comp. Rel. 


3d, Sing., Neut., Obj. 


Obj. of command. 


Your 


Pronoun. 


Personal. 


2d, PL, Com., Poss. 


Adj't of parents. 


Parents 


Noun. 


Common. 


3d, PI., Com., Nom. 


Sub. of command. 


Command 


Verb. 






Pred. Verb. 



88 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

LESSON LVIII. 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 

A verb represents its subject as being, acting, or being acted 
upon. 

A verb that represents its subject as being is called a neu- 
ter verb ; as, I am. — He sleeps. 

A verb that represents its subject as acting is called an 
active verb ; as, I write. — He walks. 

A verb that represents its subject as being acted ujjon is 
called a passive verb ; as, I am compelled. 

The word passive means suffering or enduring. As applied to a 
verb, it is the opposite of active ; that is, inactive or acted upon, re- 
ceiving the effect of an action. Passion, as expressed by a verb, 
is simply the effect of an action, whether actual suffering or merely 
endurance or inaction. 

A neuter verb may express simply being ; as, He is wise. Or 
it may express a state of being ; as, She sleeps. — He sits— It stands. 

An active verb is either transitive or intransitive. 

An active-transitive verb expresses an action which 
has some person or thing for its object ; as, Cain slew Abel. 
— He built a house. 

An active-intransitive verb expresses an action that 
has no person or thing for its object ; as, John xoalks. — Fire 
burns. 

Verbs are, therefore, divided, with respect to their signifi- 
cation, into four elasses : active-transitive, active- 
intransitive, passive, and neuter verbs. 

The word neuter means neither ; that is, as applied to verbs, expressing 
neither action nor passion. 

Both active and passive verbs express action, one as performed 
by the subject, the other as received by the subject. In the lat- 
ter case, the object of the action becomes the subject of the verb. 



Active Verbs 
Cain slew Abel. 
John wrote the letter. 
He killed the bird. 



MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. — MOODS. 89 

Therefore, every active-transitive verb may be changed into a pas- 
sive verb, and sometimes it is necessary to make this change. 
The following are examples : — 

Passive Verbs. 
Abel was slain by Cain. 
The letter was written by John. 
The bird was killed by him. 

Active-transitive and passive verbs are thus closely related. 
On this account some treat the passive verb as a form of the 
active-transitive, the latter being called the active voice, 
and the other the passive voice. 

Exercises. 

1. Parse each of the verbs in the following sentences. 

1. He won the wager. 2. The boat moves rapidly. 3. The kite 
rose swiftly. 4. The river is frozen. 5. He sleeps too long. 6. 
The book lay on the desk. 7. Charles was punished. 8. She was 
afraid. 9. He was frightened.. 10. You should obey your par- 
ents. 11. The dog howled. 12. The cat caught a mouse. 13. 
She sat at the piano. 14. The man stood motionless. 

2. Construct another sentence from each of the verbs in the above, 
changing every active-transitive verb into a passive verb. 



LESSON LIX. 
MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS.— MOODS. 

The different manner in which the being or action may be 
expressed by the verb causes a modification called moods. 

Mood, or mode, means manner. 

1. When the action or being is simply declared, or indi- 
cated, the verb is said to be in the indicative mood ; as, 

I write. — I am speaking. 



90 MODIFICATIONS OF VERBS. — MOODS. 

2. When the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of the 
being or action is expressed, the verb is said to be in the 
potential mood ; as, I may write. — I can write. — I must 
write. 

3. When the being or action is expressed as a supposition, 
a contingent or uncertain event in the future, or as the con- 
dition upon which some other event is to happen, the verb is 
said to be in the subjunctive mood. 

The following afford illustrations : — 

1. I will pardon him, if he repent. 

2. I will go to-rnorrow, unless it rain. 

3. I will reward him, if he. do right. 

In all these cases the verb is used in a subjoined, or added, 
clause; and, therefore, this has been called the subjunctive mood. 

There may, however, be a subjoined clause without requiring 
the subjunctive mood. This is the case when the event is neither 
uncertain nor future, as in the following examples : — 

1. He does not murmur, though he is suffering. 

2. I intend to go, even if it does rain. 

The subjunctive mood cannot be used without the subjoined 
clause. 

4. When the being or action is expressed as a command, a 
request, or an entreaty, the verb is said to be in the imper- 
ative mood ; as, Go immediately. — Forgive me. — Be com- 
forted. 

5. When the being or action is expressed without being 
limited or modified by any particular subject, the verb is said 
to be in the infinitive mood ; as, To be. — To do.— To 
suffer. 

In this mood, the word to usually precedes the verb. 
A verb in any other mood, and limited by a subject, is called a 
finite verb. 

Questions may be asked in either the indicative or po- 
tential mood. 



DEFINITION OF THE MOODS. — REVIEW. 91 

Exercises. 

1. Copy the verbs in the following sentences, and write after each 
the mood in which it is found, giving the reason why it is in that 
mood. 

1. He is sick. 2. I went away. 3. He may go to Euroj)e. 4. 
You can go home. 5. Did lie write ? 6. Must I do it ? 7. I am 
to go there. 8. To exercise is necessary. 9. What did he say? 
10. Speak plainly. 11. I will see him, if he come. 12. I will go, 
unless it be too cold. 

2. Analyze by diagram the last two sentences, and prepare a writ- 
ten parsing exercise of the words in each. 



LESSON LX. 
DEFINITIONS OF THE MOODS.— REVIEW. 

Moods are different forms of the verb, each of which 
expresses the being or action in some particular manner. 

Action, in all these definitions, refers to that expressed not only 
by the active but the passive verb. The latter is sometimes 
called passion, because it is the endurance of the effect of action. 
(See Lesson LVIII.) 

There are five moods: the infinitive, the indic- 
ative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the im- 
perative. 

The infinitive mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses the being or action in an unlimited manner. 

The indicative mood is that form of the verb which 
simply indicates or declares a thing. 

The potential mood is that form of the verb which 
expresses the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity of 
the being or action. 



92 FORMS OF THE MOODS. 

The subjunctive mood is that form of the verb 
which represents the being or action as conditional, doubt- 
ful, and contingent. 

The imperative mood is that form of the verb 
which is used in commanding, exhorting, entreating, or 
permitting. 

Questions for Review. 

What is a compound relative pronoun ? What words are com- 
pound relatives '? What simple word is used as a compound rela- 
tive? To what word is it equivalent ? How may a verb represent 
the subject ? How are verbs divided in respect to their significa- 
tion ? What is an active-transitive verb ? An active-intransitive 
verb ? A passive verb ? A neuter verb ? What is a finite verb ? 



LESSON LXI. 
FORMS OF THE MOODS. 

Moods are expressed by variations in the form of the verb, 
or by additional words. 

The verb, in the English language, has very few variations in form, or in- 
flections. 

The indicative mood is mostly expressed by the com- 
mon form of the verb ; as, I speak. — He spoke. 

The potential mood is expressed by the word may, 
implying liberty or possibility ; can, implying power ; or 
must, implying necessity. 

The subjunctive mood varies but slightly in form 
from the indicative. 

The infinitive and imperative moods have mostly 
the common form of the verb. 

Words such as may, can, and must, which are used to ex- 



FORMS OF THE MOODS. 93 

press the modifications of verbs, are called auxiliary verbs 

(that is, helping verbs). 

Exercise. 

Write in diagram form the sentences below. Give the oral analysis 
of each, stating whether simple, compound, or complex, and parse the 
words, classifying the verbs, and stating the mood of each. 

Model. 
How can he do it, unless his brother help him ? 



He 


can do 


■«= 


■i -.— i— 


how 




brother 


help 



him 
his 

Oral Analysis. — A compound sentence, because it consists of two inde- 
pendent clauses connected by the conjunction unless. [Analyze each clause.] 

Parsing of the Verbs. — Can do is an active-transitive verb, having for 
its object the pronoun it. It is in the potential mood, because it expresses 
power. 

Help is an active-transitive verb, having for its object the pronoun him. 
It is in the subjunctive mood, being in the subjoined clause, and expressing 
uncertainty. 

1. I did not see the error until it was pointed out. 

2. Do not undertake the task if it be beyond your ability. 

3. I shall come, unless something occur to prevent me. 

4. He was not able to write to his friend yesterday. 

5. You may have the book which you desire. 

6. I cannot go, if the vessel sail to-morrow. 

7. They who would succeed must exert themselves. 

1. Contains an adverbial clause. See Lesson LIII. 

2. Beyond your ability is a prepositional phrase, used as an adjective at- 
tribute. 

4. To write to h is friend yesterday is an adjunct able_ 
of able. It is a complex phrase ; the principal part, ) to 

is write, write i 

6 The verb sail is in the subjunctive mood, be- Y~^q \ yesterday 

cause it is uncertain whether the vessel will sail or i friend 

not. If it were certain, the verb would be in the in- J^g 
dicative mood, and the form would be sails. 



94 



LESSON LXII. 

TENSES. 

Tenses are modifications of the verb that distinguish 
time. 

In the use of the verb in this regard, we are to express : — 

1. That the time of the being or action is present, past, or 
future ; as, I love. — I loved. — I shall love. 

2. That the being or action is completed in present, past, or 
future time ; as, I have loved. — I had loved. — I shall have loved. 

Hence there must be six tenses to express this twofold dis- 
tinction. 





The following illustrates t 


his : — 




Distinctions 




Names of Tenses. 


1. 


Present \ 


Imperfect 


( Present. 


2. 


Past V 


or 


< Imperfect, or Past. 


3. 


Future ) 


Indefinite 


( First Future. 


4. 


Present ) 




( Perfect, or Present Perfect. 


5. 


Past (■ 


Perfect 


■< Pluperfect, or Past Perfect. 


G. 


Future ) 




( Second Future, or Future Perfect. 



Definitions. 

There are six tenses : the present, the imperfect, 
the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and 
the second future. 

The present tense is that which expresses what now 
exists, or is taking place ; as, I hear a noise ; somebody 
is coming. 

The imperfect tense is that which expresses what 
took place, or was occurring, in time fully past ; as, I 
saio him yesterday ; he was walking out. 



FORMS OF THE TENSES. 95 

The perfect tense is that which expresses what has 
taken place, within some period of time not yet fully past ; 
as, I have seen him to-day. 

The pluperfect tense is that which expresses what 
had taken place, at some past time mentioned ; as, I had 
seen him, when I met you. 

The first-future tense is that which expresses what 
will take place hereafter ; as, I shall see him again. 

The second-future tense is that which expresses 
what will have taken place, at some future time mentioned ; 
as, I shall have seen him by to-morrow noon. 

Exercises, 

1. Write the mood and tense of every verb in the following sentences. 

1. I shall go home. 2. You must stay here. 3. He went away. 
4. He can do it. 5. Tell me the story. 6. I saw him yesterday. 
7. I have seen him to-day. 8. I had written the letter when you 
called. 9. What will you do? 10. Whom shall I call? 11. 
Bring [to] me your slate. 12. He will have finished the work by 
to-morrow. 13. It will have been finished by next week. 14 If 
this be the truth, it will sorely grieve your kind mother. 

2. Analyze by diagram Sentences 8, 12, and 14. 



LESSON LXIII. 
FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

The indicative mood has six tenses, formed 
chiefly by means of the auxiliary verbs do (imperfect, did), 
have (imperfect, had), shall, and will. 

The forms of the verb love in the indicative mood, ar- 
ranged in the order of the tenses, and as \ised with a subject 
of the first person, singular number, are here given. 



96 FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

Tense Forms of the Verb LOVE, Indicative Mood. 

I love or do love ; I loved or did love ; I have loved ; I had 
loved; I shall love; I shall have loved. 

The second of the two forms of the present and imperfect 
tenses is used for emphasis, and in interrogation ; as, I do love. 
—Do I love ? 

The potential mood has four tenses. These 
are formed by the use of the auxiliary verbs may (imperfect, 
might), can (imperfect, could), must, xvoidd (imperfect of will), 
and should (imperfect of shall). 

The present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses of the 
potential mood of the verb love, in the first person singular, 
are : 

Tense Forms of the Verb LOVE, Potential Mood. 

I may, can, or must love ; I might, coidd, woidd, or should 
love; I may, can, or must have loved ; I might, could, would, 
or should have loved. 

The subjunctive mood has two tenses, the 
present and imperfect, which are the same or nearly the same 
as those of the indicative ; as, If I love ; If I loved. * 

The imperative mood has one tense, the 
present, which is the simple form of the verb. It is used with 
a subject of the second person ; as, Love (thou or you), or Do 
you love. 

The infinitive mood has two tenses, the pres- 
ent and the perfect ; as, To love, to have loved. 

Exercise. 

Write the forms of the tenses of the following verbs in each mood, 
with the pronoun I, except in the infinitive mood. 
Walk. Parse. Learn. Work. Head. Write. 



TENSE FORMS OF THE VERB "BE." 97 

LESSON LXIV. 
TENSE FORMS OF THE VERB "BE." 

The following synopsis contains all the forms of the verb be, 
as used with the subject I, of the first person, singular num- 
ber. 

Infinitive. — To be, to have been. 

Indicative. — I am, I was, I have been, I had been, I shall be, 
I shall have been. 

Potential. — I may, can, or must be ; I might, could, would, or 
should be ; I may, can, or must have been ; I might, could, would, 
or should have been. 

Subjunctive. — (If) I be, (if) I were. 

Imperative. — Be (thou) or, Do (thou) be. 

The imperative mood is used only with a subject of the second 
person. 

Exercises. 

1\ In the same manner, write a synopsis of the verbs do, speak, 
give, and think. 

2. Write six sentences containing examples of the six tenses of the 
indicative mood with the subject I. 

Questions for Review. 

How are moods expressed ? How is the indicative mood ex- 
pressed ? The potential mood ? The subjunctive mood ? The 
infinitive and imperative moods ? For what are auxiliary verbs 
used ? What are tenses ? How many tenses are there ? Why 
must there be six tenses ? Name the tenses. What is the present 
tense ? The imperfect tense ? The perfect tense ? The pluper- 
fect tense ? The first-future tense ? The second-future tense ? 
How many tenses has the indicative mood ? How many has the 
potential mood? How many has the subjunctive mood? The 
imperative mood ? The infinitive mood ? What are the forms of 
the tenses in the indicative, with a subject of the first person, sin- 
gular number? Of the potential mood? Of the subjunctive 
mood? What are the forms of the tenses of each mood of the 
verb be, for the first person, singular number ? 
7 



98 PARTICIPLES. 

LESSON LXV. 
PARTICIPLES. 

Connected with the verb and its forma are the parti- 
ciples. 

It is especially necessary to know the forms of the participles, 
as some of the tenses are formed from them. Examples are here 
given from the verbs love and write. 

Love. 

Active. 



Imperfect. Loving. 
Perfect. Loved. 



Passive. 
Being loved. 
Loved. 



Preperfect. Having loved. Having been loved. 

Write. 

Active. 
Imperfect. Writing. 



Perfect. Written. 

Preperfect. Having written. 



Passive. 
Being written. 
Written. 
Having been written. 



A verb has three participles : the imperfect, the per- 
fect, and the preperfect. 

The imperfect participle implies a continuance of 
the being or action. 

The perfect participle implies a completion of the 
being or action. 

The preperfect participle implies a completion of 
the being or action previous to some other past event ; as, 
" Having finished my task, I went home." 

The imperfect participle of all active verbs is formed by 
adding ing to the present infinitive ; as, loving, working, be- 
ing. 

The perfect participle of all regular verbs is formed by add- 
ing d or ed to the present infinitive. 



REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 

The preperfect participle is always formed by prefixing 
having to the perfect participle ; as, having seen, having 
ivritten. 

A phrase beginning with a participle is called a parti- 
cipial phrase. 

Exercises. 

Analyze in diagram form the following sentences. Write a list of 
the participles, putting- to the right of each the class to which it be- 
longs. 

Model. 

Having received a serious injury, he was confined to his bed for a 
long time. 

He was confined 



having received 



| to | for 

injury | bed time 
his | a 

long 



The relation of the participle and its object is indicated in this diagram 
by the single dotted line. 

1. Being afraid, I could not make so great a venture. 

2. Loving Ms parents fondly, he would not treat them disre- 
spectfully. 

3. Playing at ball, he met with a very serious accident. 

4. Having returned from the country, he resumed his work. 

5. Being disturbed at the news, he immediately returned home. 

6. He stood dismayed at the sight of so much suffering. 



LESSON LXVI. 
REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

A complete verb has four principal parts : the pres- 
ent (infinitive), the preterit (imperfect indicative), the 
imperfect participle, and the perfect participle. 



100 REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

There are a few verbs that want some of these parts, and are 
therefore called defective verbs. 

A regular verb is one that forms its preterit and per- 
fect participle by assuming d or ed / as, love, loved, loved. 

An irregular verb is one that does not form its 
preterit and perfect participle by assuming d or ed / as, 
think, thought, thought y see, saw, seen. 

Verbs that have both regular and irregular forms are called 
redundant verbs ; as, dress, dressed, dressed, or, dress, drtsl, 
drest. 

As the imperfect participle is always formed the same way, 
we need to know only the preterit and perfect participle of 
a verb to be able to form all its tenses. 

For a complete list of irregular and redundant verbs, see Appendix 

Synopsis of the Moods and Tenses of the Verb See. 

Principal Parts.— Pres., See ; Pret., Saw ; Per/. Part., 
Seen. 

Indicative Mood. — I see, I saw, I have seen, I had seen, I 
shall see, I shall have seen. 

Potential Mood.— I may, can, or must see ; I might, could, 
would, or should see ; I may, can, or must have seen ; I might, 
could, would, or should have seen. 

Subjunctive Mood.— (If) I see, (if) I saw. 

Imperative Mood.— See (thou or you). (2d Pers. Sing.) 

Exercise. 

Write a similar synopsis for the following verbs, the principal 
parts of which are given. 



1. Blow, blew, blown. 

2. Strive, strove, striven. 

3. Fight, fought, fought. 

4. Give, gave, given. 



5. Sit, sat, sat. 

6. Set, set, set. 

7. Lie, lay, lain. 

8. Lay, laid, laid. 



PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 101 

LESSON LXVII. 
PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS. 

The person and number of verbs are those modifi- 
cations which depend on the person and number of the 
subject. 

The modifications, or inflections, for this purpose are very 
few. Those proper to the first person, singular, have already 
been given. The second person, singular, requires the end- 
ing st or est in the form of the verb itself, or in that of the 
auxiliary; except in the sujunctive mood. 

Shall and will, however, are changed to shalt and wilt. 
Moreover, will in the second and third persons expresses the 
the same as shall in the first person, namely, simply a future 
event ; while will in the first person, and shall in the second 
and third person, imply the exercise of will or determination 
on the part of the speaker or writer. 

The forms of all thi-ee persons, in the plural number, are 
the same as those of the first person, singular. 

Synopsis of Love (Second Person, Singular). 

Indicative. — Thou lovest or dost love, lovedst or didst love, 
hast loved, hadst loved, shalt or wilt love, shalt or wilt have 
loved. 

Potential. — Thou mayst, canst, or must love ; mightst, 
couldst, wouldst, or shouldst love; mayst, canst, or must have 
loved ; mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have loved. 

Subjunctive. — (If) thou love, (if) thou loved. The third 
person, singular, in the present tense, indicative mood, adds s to 
to the verb ; as, He loves, he sees, he thinks, he does. 

The third person singular, in solemn style, often has the ending 
ill instead of s / as, he loveth, he goeth, he hath, he doth. 

In the verb have, the regular forms of the second and third 



102 tup: conjugation of verbs. 

persons, singular, are contracted into hast and has ; as, I have, thou 
has/, he has (instead of havest and haves). 

Exercise, 

Write a synopsis of the tenses of the following verbs, in the jjerson 
and number specified. 

1. Begin, began, begun. (First person, singular. ) 

2. Choose, chose, chosen. (Second person, singular.) 

3. Do, did, done. (Third person, singular.) 

4. Fall, fell, fallen. (First person, plural.) 

5. Flee, fled, fled. (Second person, plural.) 

6. Fly, flew, flown. (Third person, plural.) 



LESSON LXVIII. 
THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is a regular arrangement 
of its moods, tenses, persons, numbers, and participles. 
The following is an example. 

Conjugation of the Verb BE. 
Principal Parts. 
Present. Preterit. Imperfect Participle. Perfect Participle. 
Be. Was. Being. Been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. To be. 
Perfect Tense. To have been. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is ; 3. They are. 



THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 103 





Imperfect Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I was, 


1. We were, 


2. Thou wast, 


2. You were, 


3. He was, 


3. They were. 




Perfect Tense. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1. I have been, 1. We have been, 


2. Thou hast 


been, 2. You have been, 


3. He has 


been ; 3. They have been. 



Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 

First-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1.1 shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be; 3. They will be. 

Second-future Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 
Present Tense. 



1. 

2. 

3. 


Singular. 
I may be, 
Thou mayst be, 
He may be ; 




Plural. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 


1. 

'2. 
3. 


Im 

Singular. 
I might be, 
Thou mightst be, 
He might be ; 


perfect Tense. 


Plural. 

1. We might be, 

2. You might be, 

3. They might be. 



104 THE CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 








Plural. 




1. If I be, 








1. If we be, 




2. If thou be, 








2. If you be, 




3. If he be: 


Imperfect 


Tense. 




3. If they be. 




Singular. 








Plural. 


1. 


If I were, 






1. 


If we were, 


2. 


If thou wert, 


or were, 




2. 


If you were, 


3. 


If he were ; 






3. 


If they were. 



IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. 2. Be [thou] or Do thou be. 
Plural. 2. Be [ye or you,] or Do you be. 

PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Imperfect. 2. TJie Perfect. 3. The Preperfect. 

Being. Been. Having been. 

The chief irregularities of this verb, it will be seen, are in the 
present and imperfect tenses of the indicative mood — in the forms 



COMPOUND CONJUGATIONS. 105 

am, are, art, was, and were. The other tenses are formed in the 
general way from the perfect participle been. 

Exercise. 

Write out the conjugation of the verbs love, have, do, and fly. 



LESSON LXIX. 
COMPOUND CONJUGATIONS. 

Active and neuter verbs may also be conjugated by adding 
the imperfect participle to the verb be, through all its 
changes. 

This is the compound form of conjugation, and, as it im- 
plies a continuance of the action or state of being, it is some- 
times called the progressive form. 

The synopsis of the first person, singular, indicative mood, of 
the verb write is here given as an example. 

I am writing, I was writing, I have been writing, I had been writ- 
ing, I shall be writing, I shall have been writing. 

[The pupil should be required to write the synopsis of the other moods.] 

Passive verbs are always compound, being formed from 
active-transitive verbs by adding the perfect participle to the 
verb be through all its changes. 

Synopsis of the Passive Verb BE LOVED. 

Infinitive. Present, To be loved ; perfect to have been loved. 

Indicative. I am loved, teas loved, have been loved, had been 
loved, shall be loved, shall have been loved. 

Potential. I may be loved, might be loved, may have been loved, 
might have been loved. 



106 AUXILIARY AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Subjunctive. (If) I be loved, (if) I were loved. 
Imperative. Be loved (thou or you), or Do (thou or you) be 
loved. 

Exercise. 

Write out the conjugation of the active verb Be writing. Also of 
the passive verb Be taught. 



LESSON LXX. 
AUXILIARY AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

An auxiliary is a short verb prefixed to one of the 
principal parts of another verb, to express some particular 
mode and time of the being or action. 

The auxiliaries are do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, and 
must, with their variations. 

All the auxiliaries except do, be, and have are defective 
verbs. Do, be, and have are also used as principal verbs. 

The defective verbs are used only in the present and im- 
perfect tenses of the indicative mood ; as, can, coidd ; may, 
might ; must, must; shall, should; loill, would. 

Ought and a few other verbs, rarely used, are also defective 
verbs. 

A defective verb is a verb that wants some of the 
principal parts. 

When any of the principal parts are wanting, the tenses usually 
derived from those parts are, of course, also wanting. 

Exercises. 

1. Analyze in diagram form the following seyitences. 

2. Write the parsing of the separate words. 

1. He might have succeeded, if he had tried hard enough. 

2. He will have finished the letter before you call. 



THE USE OF WOULD AND SHOULD. 



107 



3. What has been done cannot be repaired. 

4. The horse must be shod, or he will become lame. 

5. You shall do it, for I will compel you. 

6. I shall be glad to see you when you call. 

7. You will perform the task well, for I shall help you. 
Example. — " I shall be glad to see you when you call.' 



DlAGKAM. 

shall be glad 



You 



| to 
see 



call 



you 



Form of a Written Parsing Exercise. 



Word. 


Part of 
Speech. 


Class. 


Modification. 


Relation. 


1 


Pronoun. 


Personal. 


1st, Sing., Com., Norn. 


Subj. of Shall be. 


Shall ) 


Verb i 


Irregular, 


Indie, 1st Fut., 1st, 


Pred. Verb. 


Be i 


( 


Neuter. 


Sing. 




Glad 


Adjective. 


Common. 


Positive degree. 


Att. 


To 


Preposition. 






Bet. glad and see. 


See 


Verb. j 


Irregular 
Act. Trans. 


Infin., Pres. 


Obj. of to. 


You 


Pronoun. 


Personal. 


2d, pi., Com., Obj. 


Obj. of see. 


When 


Adverb. 


Of time. 




Adj't of call. 


You 


Pronoun. 


Personal. 


2d, pi., Com., Norn. 


Subj. of call. 


Call. 


Verb. \ 


Regular 
Act. Int. 


Indie, Pres., 2d pi. 


Pred. Verb. 



LESSON LXXI. 
THE USE OF WOULD AND SHOULD. 



The preterits would and should require the same dis- 
crimination as will and shall. (See Lesson LXVII.) 

Shall and should, when used in the first person, imply 



108 THE USE OF WOULD AND SHOULD. 

only a future event ; as, I shall go to-morrow. — We should go, if 

it were possible. 

Will and would, when used in the second or third per- 
son, imply only a future event ; as, You will go to-morrow. 
— They would write, if they could. 

Shall and should, when used in the second or third 
person, imply the exercise of will on the part of the speaker 
or writer ; as, You shall do it ; i. e., / am resolved to make 
you do it. — You should do it, if I could make you ; i. e., 
I would compel you. Should is often equivalent to ought. 

Will and would, when used in the first person, imply 
the exercise of will or determination on the part of the 
speaker or writer ; as, I will go ; i. e., / am resolved to go. 
— I would do it, if I could ; i. e., I should be willing to 
do it. 

Do not use will or would in connection with words that imply 
will or inclination. 

Thus say, / should like to do it, not / would like ; I should be 
pleased, not i" would be pleased; I shall be glad, not i" will be glad. 
We do not will to be willing, to be pleased, or to be glad. 



Exercise. 

Analyze the following sentences in diagram form. 
Explain the use of shall and will, and shoidd and would. 

1. I shall fail, unless my brother will help me. 

2. It will certainly be a very great misfortune for him. 

3. I should be much pleased to learn of your success. 

4. Will you attend the meeting of the board to-morrow? 

5. They should be entirely willing to make that sacrifice. 

6. I would not, under any circumstances, do what he re- 
quests. 

7. My sister would be pleased to oblige you, if it were pos- 
sible. 



ADVERBS. — CLASSES. 109 

LESSON LXXII. 
ADVERBS.— CLASSES. 

There are four classes of adverbs ; namely, adverbs of 
time, of place, of degree, and of manner ; besides 
others that modify the predicate in various ways. 

Adverbs of time are those which answer to the 
question, When ? How long ? How soon ? How often ? 

As, now, already, hereafter, when, then, ever, often, first, secondly, 
etc. 

Adverbs of place are those which answer to the 
question, Where, or in what place ? Whither, or to what 
place? Whence, ox from what place? 

As, where, there, here; whither, thither, hither ; whence, thence, 
hence; somewhere. 

Adverbs of degree are those which answer to the 
question, How much ? How little ? 

As, much, enough, little, somewhat, so, as, very, equally, ever so, 
scarcely, hardly, how. 

Adverbs of manner are those which answer to the 

question, How, or in what manner ? 

As, well, ill, thus, so, like, foolishly, wisely, justly, skillfully. 

Some words are often placed in the general class of ad- 
verbs of manner, although they do not express the manner of 
the being or action, but serve to modify the predicate, or 
show the manner of the predication. The following are exam- 
ples : — 

1. Affirmation ; as, verily, truly, indeed, surely, etc. 

2. Negation ; as, not, nowise. 

3. Doubt ; as, perhaps, possibly, perchance. 

4. Cause ; as, why, wherefore, therefore. 



110 CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunctive adverb is one that connects differ- 
ent clauses of a sentence. 

Adverbs are sometimes compared like adjectives : some 
regularly ; as, soon, sooner, soonest ; often, qftener, oftenest ; 
others irregularly ; as, well, better, best ; badly or ill, worse, 
worst ; little, less, least ; much, more, most ; far, farther, 
farthest ; forth, further, furthest. 

Exercises in Construction. 

1. Write three sentences, each containing an adverb of manner. 

2 « << «< << << « << << place. 

3 « « « << « « «, << time. 

4. " " " " " " " " degree. 

5. Write sentences, each containing one of the following ad- 
verbs : — 

Sufficiently, secondly, perhaps, truly, why, hereafter, always. 



LESSON LXXIII. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are divided into two general classes, copu- 
lative and disjunctive conjunctions. 

A copulative conjunction is one that denotes an 
addition, a cause, or a supposition. 

A disjunctive conjunction is one that denotes 
opposition of meaning. 

The principal copulative conjunctions are and, as, both, be- 
cause, for; if that. 

The principal disjunctive conjunctions are or, nor, either, 
neither, than, though, although, yet, but, except, whether, lest, 
unless, save, notwithstanding. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



Ill 



These words conjoin, or connect, in construction, while they 
express a contrast or opposition in the sense, or meaning. Hence 
the term disjunctive . 

Conjunctions used in pairs are called corresponsive 
conjunctions. 

The following are examples : Both — and, as — as, as — so, if — 
then, either — or, neither — nor, whether — or, though — yet. 

Corresponsive conjunctions serve to make the connection of 
words, phrases, or clauses more forcible or emphatic. 

The following are conjunctive phrases ; that is, phrases used 
as simple conjunctions : as though, inasmuch as, in order that, 
so that, as well as, etc. 

Examples. 

1. Both William and Henry are deserving of blame. 

2. Neither the fear of punishment nor the hope of reward could 
keep him from doing wrong. 

3. Though you should lose your life, you should persevere in 
doing your duty. 

4. Whether he succeed or fail in the undertaking, he will gain 
applause. 

5. I will meet you either in the morning or in the afternoon. 

Exercise. 

A nalyze by diagram the above sentences, and parse the separate 
words. 

Model. 

Though I should be wholly abandoned by my friends, yet 
will I not be utterly cast down. 





I 


should be 


abandoned 


H 


wholly 


by 


i 


will | be cast dc 


1 friends 
my |~ 

wn I 



| not ! utterly 

This diagram shows the double connection of the two clauses. 



112 PREPOSITIONS. 

Are these clauses dependent or independent ? 
They are independent. 

Why? 

Because they are merely connected, without any gram- 
matical dependence. Neither of them is used as an ad- 
j unct. 



LESSON LXXIV. 
PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are neither principal parts of a sentence nor 
adjuncts, their office being only to express relation. 

Prepositions introduce phrases that are generally used as 
adjuncts. 

The preposition always expresses the relation between its 
object and the word of which the phrase is an adjunct, or to 
which the phrase relates. 

For example, in the sentence, "The invention was of no use," 
the phrase of no use, equivalent to the adjective useless, is an attri- 
bute, relating to the subject noun invention; and, therefore, the 
preposition expi'esses the relation between the nouns invention and 
use. It was an invention of no use, or a useless invention. 

While we speak of a preposition as expressing the relation of 
one word to another, it must be borne in mind that, properly 
speaking, it is the relation between the things, or ideas, denoted by 
the words that is expressed by the preposition. 

The following list contains the chief simple prepositions : — 

Aboard, about, above, across, after, against, along, amid or 
amidst, among or amongst, around, at, athwart j — before, behind, 
below, beneath, beside or besides, between or betwixt, beyond, by ;—• 
concerning ; — down, during ;— except, excepting ;—for, from ; — in, 
into; — notwithstanding; — of, off, on, over, over-thwart —past ; — 
round ; — since ; — through, throughout, till, to, touching, toward or 
towards ; under, underneath, until, unto, up, upon ; — with, within, 
without. 



USE OF PKEPOSITIONS. 113 

Two or more words are sometimes used as a compound 
preposition » being so combined as to express a single re- 
lation ; as, according to, because of, out of, as to, as for, from 
out, from among, from between, over against. 

Prepositions, when used without any object, become adverbs ; 
as, "He walked about." — " It went up." — " It came down rapidly." 

Prepositions, when used merely for connection, become con- 
junctions. Thus for, when it means because, and except, when it 
means unless, are conjunctions ; as, " I was shivering, for it was 
cold." — " Except ye remain in the ship, ye cannot be saved." 

Exercises. 

1. Insert the required prepositions in each of the folloioing sen- 
tences. 

1. They marched the enemy the break day. 

2. Live ■ peace all. 3. Do not go the bounds 

propriety. 4. Keep the limits truth and 

rectitude. 5. The book lay him the desk. 6. Act 

kindly all. 7. He found himself two fires. 8. The 

squirrel ran the tree, and the branches, jumping 

one the other great rapidity. 

2. Make a list of the prepositions in these sentences, and write the 
terms of relation of each. 



LESSON LXXY. 
USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Care should be taken to use the proper preposition, in order to 
express correctly the relation of the terms, according to general 
usage. 

The following prepositions are to be carefully distinguished. 

\ Below. — He looked below the place on which he stood. 

( Beneath. — I descended into the mine far beneath the surface. 

j Among. He divided it among the company. 

I Between. — Between the two brothers there was a quarrel. 
8 



-I 



114 USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

j By — Samuel was struck by his cousin. 
' ( With. — He cut the apple with his knife, 
c On. — They were all lying on the ground. 
Upon. — She put her book zipoyi the shelf. 
Of. — They met within a mile of the town. 
From. — He went about two miles from, the place. 
(In . — He was taking a walk in the garden. 
' | Into. — I opened the gate and walked into the garden. 

!Over. — In his address, he went over the whole ground. 
I The deed was given under his hand and seal. 
" ( The letter was written wider his own signature. 

Explanations. 

1. Beneath is farther down than below. 

2. Between is used with reference to two only ; among, to three 
or more. 

3. By denotes the agent or doer ; with, the instrument or means. 

4. On with its object denotes a place or situation ; upon, a 
movement upward to the place. 

5. Of when used in this way, implies measurement from ; 
from, direction of movement, being the reverse of toward. Thus 
we say to and fro [toward and from). 

6. In implies rest or movement within a place ; into, movement 
from without to within. 

7. Over is above; under, at the lower side or surface. The 
paper receiving the signature or seal is under the hand. 

Exercises, 

1. Write a sentence to illustrate the use of each of the above prepo- 
sitions. 

2. Insert the proper preposition in each of the blanks in the follow- 
ing sentences. 

1. There was a strife the two brothers. 

2. They hid themselves the trees. 

3. John was accidentally injured his brother a gun. 

4. He was lying the ground, a tree. 

5. I put the book a shelf the closet. 



PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 115 

6. Charles was standing the boat, and fell the 

river. 

7. He made the statement his own signature. 

8. I looked me, and saw a deep cavern far the 

surface of the earth. 

9. The house had a deep cellar the ground floor. 

10. He said it was his dignity to do what he was asked 

to do. 



LESSON LXXVI. 

PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 

Participial phrases, like participles, are used both 
as adjectives and as nouns. 

The following sentences contain examples : — 

First Class {Adjectives). 

1. I saw him coming across the street. him 

2. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again. 

3. The letter, being written hastily, is faulty. 

4. Having completed his work, he demanded 

payment. 

5. Having been punished for his fault, he soon 

gave proof of repentance. 

Second Class (Nouns). 

6. Charles is fond of studying history. 

7. Before undertaking the work he prepared himself. 

8. After having been rewarded, he went away. 

9. Hunting the buffalo is exciting sport. 

10. Giving alms indiscriminately is not a wise practice. 

Participial phrases, when used as nouns, are sometimes 
preceded by a noun or pronoun in the possessive case. 




11G PARTICIPIAL PHRASES. 

The following are examples : — 

11. There is no use in John's denying his guilt. 

12. I am surprised at your making that statement. 

13. On our arriving at the house, there was great excitement. 

14. On arriving at the house we found great excitement. 

In Sentence 13, our is required to show what the participle re- 
fers to. If it were omitted, the participle would, grammatically, 
relate to excitement. In Sentence 14, the possessive pronoun is 
not needed, as the participle properly relates to we. 

Exercises. 

1. Analyze by diagram the above sentences and analyze them orally. 

2. Write a parsing exercise from Sentences 1, 2, 5, 6, 9, 11. 

Models. 
1. " Hunting the wild deer in the woods affords great pleasure 
to some persons. 1 ' 



Hunting 




deer affords 


1 pleasure 


|m 
1 woods 


the 
wild 


| to 
I persons 
some | 


great 



the 

2. " On our entering the room, a scene of dazzling splendor and 
beauty was presented to our View." 

scene was presented 

of I on I to 

and 

1 splendor | beauty I entering l room I view 

dazzling! ~~ our | _ "the our - 



I" 



3. Write two or more sentences, each containing a participial phrase 
used OS an adjective. 

4. Write two or more sentences, each containing a participial phrase 
used as a noun. 

Punctuation.— Participial phrases placed out of their natural 
order (as in 4 and 5), or not used as modifying adjuncts, 
should be separated by a comma. 



USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 117 

LESSON LXXVII. 
USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The infl nitive mood is generally preceded by the word 
to, which usually serves to express the relation between the 
infinitive verb and some other word in the sentence, thus per- 
forming the office of a preposition. 

The following are examples : 

1. She has a desire to learn. 

2.- He was careful to avoid danger. 

3. He exerted himself sufficiently to succeed. 

4. He came here to explain the matter. 

In 1, to is a preposition, and expresses the relation between 
the infinitive learn and the noun desire. In 2, it expresses the 
relation between avoid and the adjective careful; in 3, between 
succeed and the adverb sufficiently ; in 4, between explain and the 
finite verb came. 

In each of these cases the infinitive is, like a noun, the 
object of the preposition to. 

The infinitive may be used in many other ways-: 

1. As the subject of a verb ; as, " To lie is base." 

2. As the object of a verb ; as, " He loves to study." 

3. As the adjective attribute ; as, "He was to blame," or to be 
blamed, that is, blamable. 

4. As a noun attribute ; as, " To enjoy is to obey." 

In examples 1, 2, and 4, the word to does not perform the 
office of a preposition, being used merely to denote the infinitive 
mood. 

Exercises. 

Analyze by diagram, and give the oral analysis of, the following 
sentences. Parse all the infinitives. 



118 USE OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Models. 

1. " Exercising the greatest caution, this skilful navigator used 
every possible means to avoid the coming danger." 





navigator i used 




means 


this 
skiifuT 


1 exercising 

the 


caution every 
possible 


[to 

avoid danger 


greatest 




the 
coming 



Every object is preceded by a dotted line, connecting it with the verb or 
participle on which it depends. 

2. " To bestow alms without prudence is to give encouragement 
to idleness and beggary." 

To bestow alms is _ to give encouragement 

| without I to 

prudence I and 

idleness | beggary 

Oral Parsing. 

Avoid is a regular active-transitive verb, the principal parts of which are 
avoid, avoided, avoided. It is in the infinitive mood and present tense, and is 
the object of the preposition to which expresses its relation to means ; the 
phrase to avoid the coming danger relating as an adjective to means. 

Bestow is a regular active-transitive verb ; the principal parts are bestoio, 
bestowed, bestowed. It is in the infinitive mood, present tense, and, with the 
phrase of which it is the principal part, is the subject of the verb is. 

Give is an irregular active-transitive verb ; the principal parts are give, gave, 
given. It is in the infinitive mood, present tense, and with the phrase of 
which it is the principal part is the attribute after is. 

1. His effort to save his friend's life caused the loss of his 
own. 

2. Be good enough to tell me what you think of the affair. 

3. You are very kind to invite me to your party. 

4. To do good to every one is the duty of a Christian. 

5. He was much to be blamed for the course which he took. 

6. The ship was to sail in the morning, but was delayed for sev- 
eral hours. 



THE INFINITIVE OBJECT CLAUSE. 119 

LESSON LXXVIII. 
THE INFINITIVE OBJECT CLAUSE. 

1. They wished that he would leave the place. 

2. They ivished him to leave the place. 

What clause is the object of the verb wished in Sentence 1 ? 
What is the object of wished in Sentence 2 ? 
The object is, him to leave the place, which is equivalent to 
the clause in Sentence 1. 

It is perfectly clear that the object of -wished is not the pronoun 
him, nor is it to leave the place ; for they wished neither of these. 
In this case we have a pronoun in the objective case subject to a 
verb in the infinitive mood. A clause thus formed being itself an 
object is called an infinitive object clause. 

An infinitive object clause is a clause in which 
the being or action is expressed by a verb in the infinitive 
mood, and the subject of it is a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case. 

An infinitive object clause may be the object also of a preposi- 
tion ; as, "It was shameful for him to betray his friend." 

Exercises, 

1. Analyze in diagram form the following : 

1. John would not go to school though his parents wished him 
to go. 

2. William's father forbade him to keep company with bad 
boys. 

3. The general commanded his officers to begin the attack. 

4. They begged the judge to show mercy in sentencing the 
prisoner. 

5. The evidence proved him to be guilty of the crime of which 
he was accused. 



120 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX PHRASES. 

Model. 

The king sent messengers to command them to leave the 
country. 

I king sent messengers 

The I | to _ 

command them to leave i country. 

""the 1 

In this use of the infinitive mood, to loses its prepositional character and 
becomes a part of the verbal form, denoting the infinitive. 

2. Change each infinitive clause to one with n finite verb. Thus : — 
The king sent messengers to command that they should leave 
the country. 



LESSON LXXIX. 
COMPOUND AND COMPLEX PHRASES. 

Phrases may be simple, compound, or complex. 

A compound phrase is one that consists of two or 
more phrases connected by a conjunction; as, "Leaping 
from his horse and drawing his sword." 

A complex phrase is one that contains a phrase 
used as an adjunct of its principal part ; as, " In the spring 
of the year." 

The principal part of a phrase is the word on 
which all the other parts of the phrase depend ; as, " By 
the bounty of Heaven." — " Watching him with care." 

A phrase, the principal part of which is a verb in the 
infinitive mood, is called an infinitive phrase ; as, 
" To be happy."—" To do good to all."—" To be fond of 
study." 

In a participial phrase the principal part is the participle 



COMPOUND AND COMPLEX PHRASES. 121 

which introduces it ; as, "Truth crushed to earth." — "A man 
perishing in the snow." 

Phrases perform the office of various parts of speech : — 

1. A noun ; as, " To be good is to be happy." That is, Goodness 
is happiness. 

2. An adjective ; as, " A man of ability ." — "A person to be es- 
teemed." That is, An able man. — An estimable person. 

3. An adverb ; as, " I returned on the following day." 

Phrases may be used in various constructions : — 

1. As a subject ; as, " To do good is our duty." 

2. As an attribute ; as, " Our wisest course is to obey our con- 
science." (Noun.) — " His conduct is much to be admired." (Ad- 
jective.) 

3. As an object; as, "Never attempt to conceal a fault." 

4. As an explanatory adjunct ; as, "It is best to tell the truth." 
That is, It — to tell the truth — is best, the phrase being used to ex- 
plain the preceding pronoun. 

5. A phrase may be independent ; as, " To be candid, I acknowl- 
edge that I was wrong." — " Niglit coming on, I lost my way." 

The second construction, in which a noun or a pronoun is 
used independently with a participle, is equivalent to a de- 
pendent or subordinate clause. 

Thus, " He being young, they deceived him," is equivalent to, 
As he was young, they deceived him. 

When the principal part of an independent phrase is a pro- 
noun, it should have the form of the nominative case ; as, " / 
being young, they deceived me." — " He failing, who can suc- 
ceed ? " 

Exercise. 

Analyze by diagram the following sentences ; give the oral analysis, 
classifying the phrases, and explaining their use. Parse the separate 
words. 

1. In the beginning of the next month, the general planned 
another campaign against the strongest city of the enemy. 



122 COMPOUND AND COMPLEX PHRASES. 

2. To be fully on your guard will generally prevent an attack 
of your enemies. 

3. It is the part of wisdom to make use of every opportunity for 
self -improvement. 

4. His conduct was greatly to be admired on an occasion of so 
much importance. 

5. On all occasions and in every way he vigorously opposed the 
project. 

6. The ship having foundered at sea, all on board of her per- 
ished. 

7. They having been successful, many were anxious to follow 
their example. 

Model. 

" In the fall of the year, we took a journey to the western part 
of the country, with the design to discover the best way over the 
mountains." 

We took I journey 



■ li„ 


| with a I | to 


1 fall 


1 design 
the 1 | to the 


part 


the 1 | of 


[of 


year 


discover 

the 


way western 


| country 


the 1 


| over tl 


ie 1 




best 


1 mountains. 




tl 


le 





Oral Akaltsis. — This is a simple declarative sentence. The subject 
is we, and the predicate is the rest of the sentence. The predicate verb is 
took, and its adjuncts are the complex adverbial phrases, in the fall of the 
year and toith the design to discover the best way over the mountains. The 
principal part of the first of these phrases is fall, and its adjuncts are the and 
the simple adjective phrase of the year. The principal part of the second 
phrase is design, and its adjuncts are the and the complex adjective phrase 
to discover the best way over the mountains. Of the latter phrase the princi- 
pal part is discover, the object of which is way ; and the adjuncts of way 
are the, best, and the phrase over the mountains. The object of the predi- 
cate verb took is journey, the adjuncts of which are a and the complex phrase 
to the western part of the country, of which j>art is the principal part ; and 
its adjuncts are the, western, and the phrase of the country. 



SYNOPSIS FOE TOPICAL REVIEW. 



123 



LESSON LXXX. 
SYNOPSIS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 

Etymology. — Parts of Speech. 
I. Articles. 



Classes. 

1. Definite. 

2. Indefinite. 

II. Nouns. 

1. Classes. 

1. Proper. 

2. Common. 

Collective. 

2. Modifications. 

1. Persons. 

1. First. 

2. Second. 

3. Third. 

2. Numbers. 

1. Singular. 

2. Plural. 

3. Genders. 

1. Masculine. 

2. Feminine. 

3. Neuter. 

4. Common. 

4. Cases. 

1. Nominative. 

2. Possessive. 

3. Objective. 

III. Adjectives. 

1. Classes. 

1. Common. 

2. Proper. 



3. Numeral. 

4. Pronominal. 

5. Participial. 

6. Compound. 

2. Comparison. 

1. Positive. 

2. Comparative. 

3. Superlative. 

IV. Pronouns. 

1. Classes. 

1. Personal. 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

2. Relative. 

1. Simple. 

2. Compound. 

3. Interrogative. 

2. Declension. 

V. Verbs. 

1. Classes. 

1. As to Signification. 

1. Active-Trans. 

2. Active-Intrans. 

3. Passive. 

4. Neuter. 

2. As to Form. 

1. Regular. 

2. Irregular. 



124 



RELATION OF W011DS. 



3. Redundant. 


VI. 


Participles. 


4. Defective. 




Classes. 


3. As to Use. 




1. Imperfect. 


Auxiliary. 




2. Perfect. 


Modifications. 




3. Preperfect. 


1. Moods. 


VII. 


Adverbs. 


1. Infinitive. 




1. Classes. 


2. Indicative. 




1. Of time. 


3. Potential. 




2. Of place. 


4. Subjunctive. 




3. Of degree. 


5. Imperative. 




4. Of manner. 


2. Tenses. 




5. Conjunctive. 


1. Present. 




2. Comparison. 


2. Imperfect. 


VIII. 


Conjunctions. 


3. Perfect. 




Classes. 


4. Pluperfect. 




1. Copulative. 


5. First Future. 




2. Disjunctive. 


6. Second Future. 




3. Corresponsive 


3. Persons. 


IX. 


Prepositions. 


4. Numbers. 


X. 


Interjections. 



LESSON LXXXI. 
RELATION OF WORDS. 

In order to be able to construct sentences properly, we 
must know bow tbe words are related to eacb otber in ex- 
pressing some particular thought. 

Thus, if the words John and book are to be placed together so as 
to express the relation of property, or ownership —that is, to de- 
note that the book belongs to John — we say, John's book. 

If we are to form a sentence out of the words the, teacher, they, 
and love, we must know the relations to be expressed. The evident- 
ly relates to teacher. Now, if the teacher is to be the subject and 
they the object of the verb love, the sentence must be, The teacher 



RELATION OF WORDS. 125 

loves them; but if they is to be the subject and the teacher the ob- 
ject, the sentence must be, They love the teacher ; thus requiring a 
different arrangement of the words as well as a different inflection 
for the verb and the pronoun. 

The relations to be recognized in constructing sentences are 
shown in the following rules : — 

Bule I. — Articles relate to the nouns which they limit. 
Rule II. — Adjectives relate to nouns or pronouns. 
Rule III. — Adverbs relate to verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, or other ad verbs. 

Rule IV. — Participles relate to nouns or pronouns. 
Rule V. — Prepositions show the relation of things. 

Errors in Regard to Relation. 
Examples. 

1. The air feels coldly. 

In this sentence the word coldly relates to the noun air as an at- 
tribute ; hence it is an adjective, while it has the form of an adverb. 
Therefore, it should be cold. (Eule II.) 

2. He did it very quick. 

Here quick, expressing manner, relates to the verb did ; and 
therefore is an adverb, while it has the form of an adjective. 
Hence, it should be quickly. (Eule III.) 

3. Give me them books. 

Here the pronoun them relates to books ; but adjectives relate to 
nouns ; therefore, them should be those. (Rule II.) 

4. / admit of what you say. 

Here the preposition of is used to express the relation between 
an active-transitive verb and its object, and this is not required ; 
therefore, of should be omitted. (Eule V.) 

5 The worshiping idols is sinful. 

Here the article the relates to worshiping, which is thus used as 



126 AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 

a noun ; therefore, the prepositon of should be inserted to express 
the relation between worshiping and idols. (Kules I. and V.) 
(See Lesson XXXIX.) 

Exercises. 

1. Copy the following sentences, after correcting them. 

1. Do not walk so slow. 

2. This piece of work looks very finely. 

3. The eagle flies very swift. 

4. Will you have the goodness to accept of this ? 

5. How beautiful this boy writes ! 

6. She wastes her time in reading of novels. 

7. He spends his time in the reading good books. 

8. He asked of the pupil several questions. 

2. Explain why each correction is made. 

3. Analyze and parse each sentence in its correct form. 



LESSON LXXXII. 
AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 

In the construction of sentences, agreement is required 
in two ways. 

1. Every word that has more than one form must always 
have that particular form which is proper to the relation in 
which it stands to other words ; that is, its form must agree 
with its relation. 

Thus, if a noun is in the possessive case, it must have the final 
.s and the apostrophe before or after it ; and if a personal pronoun 
is in the nominative case, it must have the special form of that 
case ; and so of others. 

2. Some parts of speech must agree with each other in re- 
spect to certain modifications. 



AGREEMENT OF WOEDS. 127 

Both these kinds of agreement are shown in the following rules 
(numbered consecutively with those of the preceding lesson) : — 

Rule YI. — A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of 
a finite verb must be in the nominative case. 

This means that it must have the special form of the nominative 
case. In English there is no practical application of this rule ex- 
cept in the case of pronouns, which alone have nominative and 
objective case forms. 

The rule is confined to the finite verb, because when the infini- 
tive verb has a subject it must, from the influence of the verb in 
the preceding clause upon which it depends, have the objective 
form. (See Lesson LXXVIII.) 

Rule YII. — A noun or a personal pronoun used to ex- 
plain a preceding noun or pronoun is put in the same case. 

That is to say, explanatory adjuncts agree in case with the nouns 
or pronouns to which they are added; as, "My cousin, she that 
you saw, has gone home." — " I took my cousin, her that you met, 
to the station." 

This case of agreement is usually called apposition. 

Rule YIII. — A finite verb must agree with its subject 
in person and number. 

For example, if the subject is of the third person and singular 
number, the verb must have the form proper to that person and 
number. Thus, we say, I am, he was, we were; not, I be, he were, 
we ivas. 

Rule IX. — When the subject is a collective noun con- 
veying the idea of plurality, the verb must agree with it 
in the plural number ; but when it conveys the idea of 
unity, the verb must be singular. 

Whether the idea conveyed is that of plurality or unity de- 
pends upon the meaning of the verb ; that is, the nature of the as- 
sertion. If it refers to the individuals separately, plurality is 



128 AGKEEMENT OF WORDS. 

conveyed, because there are more than one ; if to the whole col- 
lectively, unity is expressed, when there is but one body referred 
to. Thus, in the first of the following examples, the people con- 
sider as individuals, not as a whole, to consider being a personal 
act ; but, in the fifth example, the army as a whole was defeated, 
not the individuals composing it. 

Examples of Plurality. 

1. My people do not consider. 

2. A large part of the army were drowned. 

3. The public are respectfully informed. 

4. The audience were greatly pleased. 

Examples of Unity. 

5. Pompey's army was defeated by Crcsar. 

6. A fleet of many vessels was seen. 

7. Has the board of commissioners adjourned ? 

8. A pair, of course, consists of two. 



Exercises, 

1. Point out the errors in the following sentences, and copy them in 
the corrected form. 

1. She and me went to school together. 

2. Them who do right will be rewarded. 

3. You and us should feel satisfied. 

4. I saw your friend, he that was with you. 

5. I went with William and John, they who you know. 

6. The correctness of these rules are very doubtful. 

7. There was many reasons for taking that course. 

8. The whole company was running away. 

9. The people was duly notified of the fact. 

10. The committee was deliberating upon the matter. 

2. Analyze by diagram each of the above sentences. 

3. Prepare a written parsing exercise of the verbs, jwonouns, and 
collective nouns. 



AGREEMENT. — VERBS AND SUBJECTS. 129 

LESSON LXXXIII. 
AGREEMENT.— VERBS AND SUBJECTS. 

Rule X. — When a verb has two or more subjects con- 
nected by and, it must agree with them in the plural num- 
ber ; as, " Temperance and exercise preserve health." — 
"William, James, and John have been promoted" 

The following are exceptions : — 

1. When the nouns connected refer to the same person or 
thing, the verb should be singular ; as, " This patriot, states- 
man, and orator was famous." 

2. When the connected subjects are each preceded by the 
adjective each, every, or no, they are taken separately, and re- 
quire a singular verb ; as, " And every sense and every heart 
is joy." 

Rule XI. — When a verb has two or more singular sub- 
jects connected by or or nor, it must agree with them 
in the singular number ; as, " Fear or jealousy affects 
him." 

If the connected subjects differ in person or number, the verb 
should be made to agree with that which is placed next to it ; as, 
" Neither he nor his brothers were present." — " Neither you nor I 
am concerned." 

Sometimes, however, it is better to express the verb or the 
proper auxiliary in connection with each subject ; as, " Either 
thou art to blame, or I am." 

When the subjects include the speaker or writer, he should be 
mentioned last, unless the predicate is the confession of a fault ; 
as, " My friend and I are iuvited. — " I and my brother Robert are 
to l)lame." 

9 



130 AGREEMENT. — CONNECTED VERBS. 

Exercises, 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. Industry and frugality leads to wealth. 

2. Either ability or inclination were wanting. 

3. Neither John nor his brother have been to school. 

4. My love and esteem toward him remains unaltered. 

5. Either he or I are mistaken. (Express in two ways.) 

6. No pains nor cost were spared in his education. 

7. Neither John nor I were to blame. 

8. Every boy and every girl were at play. 

9. No wife, no mother, and no child were there to comfort him. 

10. That brilliant patriot, soldier, and statesman have passed 
from earth. 

Punctuation. — See Lesson XXV. 



LESSON LXXXIV. 
AGREEMENT. -CONNECTED VERBS. 

Rule XII. — When verbs are connected by a conjunc- 
tion, they must either agree in mood, tense, and form, or 
have separate subjects ; as, " She played and sung admir- 
ably." " He was good, and he will receive his reward." 

The following tenses are often connected without repeating 
the subject : — 

1. The present, perfect, and first-future tenses of the indica- 
tive mood. 

2. The corresponding tenses of the indicative and potential 
moods. 

The affirmative and negative forms, and the simple and com- 
pound forms are, also, often excepted. In the latter case, the 
simple verb should generally be placed first. Thus ; — 



AGKEEMENT. — SUBJECT AUSTD ATTKIBUTE. 131 

"What nothing earthly gives or can destroy." — Pope. 
"Some are and must be, greater than the rest." — Id. 
Auxiliaries and other words common to several verbs are usually 
expressed to the first only, being understood to the rest. Thus : — 
' ' Every sincere endeavor to amend shall be assisted, [shall be] 
accepted, and [shall be] rewarded. " 

" You have seen it, but I have not" [seen it]. 

Exercises. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. He was invited to the meeting but would not attend. 

2. William can learn his lesson, but will not. 

3. They would neither go in themselves, nor suffered others to 
enter. 

4. He had arranged to leave the country, but could not go. 

5. Did he not waste his time and neglected his lessons? 



LESSON LXXXV. 
AGREEMENT. -SUBJECT AND ATTRIBUTE. 

Rule XIII. — The attribute must agree in case with the 
subject ; as, "It was she" — " Who is he? " — "Whom did 
he allege it to be ? "— " Art thou he f " 

In interrogative sentences, the attribute is usually placed be- 
fore the verb, and the subject after it ; as, " Who art thou ? " Or 
the subject and attribute are both placed after the verb ; as, "Art 
thou he ? " — " Am I thy slave ? " 

The verb be generally affirms only the connection between the 
subject and attribute. When the latter is a noun, it may express : 
1. Class; as, "Cain was a murderer." — 2. Identity; as, " Cain was 
the murderer of Abel." 

Class or identity is sometimes affirmed by other verbs, in con- 
nection with a particular act or state of being ; as, " She looked a 



132 AGREEMENT.— PRONOUN AND ANTEC EDENT. 

goddess, and she walked a queen." — " It seemed a miracle." — " He 
became a scholar." Also by affirming not only the connection 
but the cause or manner of its establishment; as, " The twig has 
grown a tree." — "He was elected president." — "The child was 
named John." 

When the active verb is used instead of the passive, the object is 
an infinitive clause. (See Lesson LXXVIII.) For example, " They 
elected him president." — "They named the child John." — "The 
saints proclaim thee King." In these cases the predicate verb 
which usually connects the subject and the attribute is the. infini- 
tive of be, understood. 

The attribute is sometimes used in an infinitive phrase without 
reference to any particular subject; as, "To be a poet requires 
genius." — "To be good is to be happy" 

Exercises. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. It could not have been her that I saw. 

2. They believed it to be I, but it was my brother. 

3. Let him be whom he may, I will have him punished. 

4. Who do they think him to be ? 

5. Whom do they say that I am ? 

6. It was me who wrote the letter which you thought to be 
from your friend. 

7. I should have acted in the same way, if I had been him. 



LESSON LXXXVI. 
AGREEMENT.— PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 

Rule XIV. — A pronoun must agree with its antece- 
dent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in per- 
son, number, and gender ; as, I, who am your friend, will 
aid you." 



AGREEMENT. — PRONOUN AND ANTECEDENT. 133 

While every pronoun must represent some noun or pronoun, ex- 
pressed or understood, it is only the relative pronoun that neces- 
sarily has an antecedent (word going before). 

The pronoun must always agree with the noun or pronoun 
which it represents, whether it be an antecedent or not. 

The antecedent of a relative pronoun is always in the same sen- 
tence ; but it is in the principal clause, while the relative is in the 
dependent clause. 

Who is applied only to persons, and which to brute animals or 
inanimate things. 

TJiat may be used to represent either. 

The relative pronoun should be placed as near as possible to 
the antecedent. 

The pronoun it is often used indefinitely ; as, " It rains."—" It 
is stormy." 

It is also very often used to represent a phrase or a clause com- 
ing after the verb; as, "It is good to be here." 

The phrase in this case is an explanatory adjunct of the pro- 
noun. (See Lesson LXXIX.) 

As is sometimes used as a relative pronoun; as, " Avoid such 
as are vicious." 

Rule XV. — When the antecedent is a collective noun 
conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree 
with it in the plural number ; but when it conveys the 
idea of unity, the pronoun should be singular. 

Examples of Plurality. 

The council disagreed in their sentiments. 
The people will not relinquish their rights. 
The general orders the army to lay down their arms. 

Examples of Unity. 

The nation will enforce all its laws. 

The association expelled two of its members. 

The committee has made its report. 

The army continued its retreat. 



134 AGREEMENT.— CONNECTED ANTECEDENTS. 

Exercises. 

Correct, parse, and analyze the following sentences. 

1. The party disagreed in its views of the measure. 

2. Every one must judge of their own feelings. 

3. Each of us should strive to do all we can. 

4. The lion who seemed so fierce was brought from Africa. 

5. The court by their decision have closed the case. 

6. The senate will consider the matter at their next session. 

7. The meeting showed its approbation by applause. 

8. The new board of directors have elected their officers. 



LESSON LXXXVII. 
AGREEMENT. -CONNECTED ANTECEDENTS. 

Rule XYI. — When a pronoun has two or more ante- 
cedents connected by and, it must agree with them in the 
plural number; as, "James and John will favor us with 
their company." 

When the antecedents are of different persons, use the first 
person rather than the second, and the second rather than the 
third ; as, "You, William, and I must make our excuses." 

The exceptions and observations under Rule X. are applicable 
to antecedents as well as subjects. 

Rule XYII. — When a pronoun has two or more singu- 
lar antecedents connected by or or nor, it must agree with 
them in the singular number ; as, " James or John will 
favor us with his company." 

When a pronoun is used to represent antecedents of different 
genders, the masculine should be used rather than the feminine ; 
as, " Neither Sarah nor James will give up his place." The use of 
the expression " his or her " is awkward. The difficulty may be 



GOVERNMENT. 135 

avoided by a change in the construction ; as, " Sarah will not give 
up her place, nor James his." 

Exercises, 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. Truth and honesty will never fail of its reward. 

2. One or the other must relinquish their claim. 

3. Neither John nor Peter appear to have learned their lessons. 

4. You and your sister should obey their parents. 

5. Neither the watch nor the chain was ever found by their 
owner. 

6. Cherish love and unity, for it is the source of all happiness. 

7. Every plant, every flower, and every animal show the wisdom 
of their Creator. 

8. Neither Mary nor her brother complied with their teacher's 
request. 



LESSON LXXXVIII. 
GOVERNMENT. 

When a word standing in a certain relation to another 
word is required on that account to undergo some inflection 
or modification, the word thus inflected or modified is said 
to be governed by the other word. 

Thus, if the word John stands in the relation of ownership to 
the word booh, it is governed by the latter in the possessive case, 
and must assume the possessive inflection ( ! s), thus, John's book. 

Thus, too, a preposition coming before a noun or a pronoun 
governs it in the objective case ; as, To him, for her, from them. 

Rule XVIII. — A noun or a pronoun in the possessive 
case is governed by the name of the thing possessed ; as, 
" Your pencil is not as sharp as mine? — " The credit is 
mine, not theirs" 



136 GOVERNMENT. 

Every noun in the possessive case requires the sign of posses- 
sion except when two or more nouns are connected by a conjunc- 
tion, and the person or thing possessed by each is the same. Then 
the sign of possession is required by that only which immediately 
precedes the governing word. Thus : — 

1. Cain and Abel's parents were Adam and Eve. 

2. Was John and William's father aware of his sons' conduct ? 

3. Henry's and Samuel's parents were unknown to each other. 

4. Cain's occupation and Abel's [occupation] were unlike. 

5. Neither James's nor Charles's teacher was very successful. 

Bule XIX. — Active-transitive verbs and their imper- 
fect and preperfect participles govern the objective case; 
as, " I found her assisting him." 

An active-transitive verb is often followed by the direct object 
of the action and the indirect object, or that in regard to which the 
action is performed ; as, " He gave her the book." — " I paid him 
the money." 

The indirect object is usually governed by a preposition under- 
stood ; as, "I paid [to] him the money." 

When, in such cases, a passive verb is formed from the active- 
transitive verb, the direct object should be made the subject; 
as, "The book was given to her." — "The money was paid to 
him." 

An active-transitive verb sometimes has two objects, both of 
which may be deemed direct, one being the name of a person and 
the other that of a thing ; as, " I taught the boy grammar." — " He 
asked them a question." 

When this construction is changed to the passive form, either 
object may be made the subject, the other still retaining its rela- 
tion to the action expressed by the verb, and, of course, remaining 
in the same case ; " The boy was taught grammar.'" 

An active-transitive verb is sometimes followed by an object 
and an attribute agreeing with it, the predicate verb being under- 
stood ; as, " Thy saints proclaim thee King." This is the reverse 
of the passive construction, " Thou art proclaimed King by thy 
saints." 



GOVERNMENT. — PREPOSITIONS. 137 

Exercises. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. John's and William's father chicled them for their mis- 
conduct. 

2. Adam was Cain's and Abel's father. 

3. I have seen neither William nor Charles's book. 

4. Brown and Jones's houses will soon be occupied. 

5. She I shall more readily forgive. 

6. My father allowed my brother and I to go with him. 

7. Who should I meet last week but my old friend. 

8. They who disobey the rules the teacher will punish. 



LESSON LXXXIX. 

GOVERNMENT.— PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule XX. — Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, 
" No one was seen by him except her and ?ne." 

After the adjectives like, near, and nigh, the preposition to or 
unto is generally understood ; as, " Near [to] him was his friend." 
"His brother was like [u»fo] him." » 

Nouns of time or measure, when connected with verbs or adjec- 
tives, are generally used without a governing preposition ; as 
" We walked [?] several miles.'" "The wall is ten. feet high ;" that 
is, high \to, or to the extent of] ten feet. 

The infinitive mood is frequently the object of the preposition 
to. (See Lesson LXXVII. ) 

After the active verbs bid, dare, feel, hear, let, make, need, see, 
and their participles, the infinitive mood is generally used without 
the preposition to ; as " They bade him go." "We dare not do it." 
" I felt it touch me." 

The auxiliary be of the passive infinitive is also suppressed after 
feel, hear, make, and see ; as "I heard the letter read." 



138 DEFINITIONS.— REVIEW. 

Exercises. 

Correct, analyze, and parse the following sentences. 

1. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 

2. Who did you give the message to ? 

3. Did you not see him to strike his brother? 

4. Bid all the boys to come in without any further delay. 

5. Can I not make this matter to be clearly understood by you 



LESSON XC. 
DEFINITIONS.— REVIEW. 

That part of grammar which treats of the construction 
of sentences is called syntax. 

From the Greek syn, together ; and taxis, arrangement. 

Syntax treats of the relation, agreement, government, 
and arrangement of words in sentences. 

The relation of words is their dependence, or connec- 
tion, according to the sense. 

The agreement of words is their similarity in person, 
number, gender, case, mood, tense, or form. 

Tfie government of words is that power which one 
word has over another to cause it to assume some particu- 
lar modification. 

The arrangement of words is their relative place in 
the sentence. 

The rules of syntax are designed to guide in the 
application of the principles of grammar to the construc- 
tion of sentences. 

False syntax is a violation, in the construction of 
sentences, of any of the rules or methods of speech proper 
to the language. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLAUSES. 139 

Every language has its peculiar rules of syntax and methods of 
speech, including modifications and forms, or inflections. The 
principles and methods of analysis are common to all languages. 

Review Questions. 

What are the rules that refer to relation ? What are those that 
relate to agreement? What are those that relate to government? 
In how many ways is agreement required ? What is apposition ? 
How does a verb agree with a collective noun ? When is the idea 
conveyed singular ? When plural ? Give examples of each. 
How does a verb agree with two or more subjects ? How should 
connected verbs agree ? What exceptions are there to the general 
rule ? With what must the attribute agree ? How should a pro- 
noun agree with its antecedent ? How with two or more connected 
antecedents ? How are nouns or pronouns in the possessive case 
governed? When may the sign of possession be omitted? What 
do active-transitive verbs govern ? What is the difference between 
the direct and the indirect object ? What do prepositions govern ? 
How are nouns of time and measure governed? How is the infini- 
tive mood governed ? When is the infinitive mood used without 
to ? Does the word to always govern the infinitive ? Give exam- 
ples. 



LESSON XCI. 
DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLAUSES. 

Clauses, like sentences, may be simple, complex, or 
compound. 

Complex and compound sentences are sometimes called mem- 
bers. Every complex or compound clause would be a complex or 
compound sentence if it were used by itself. 

A principal clause and one or more dependent clauses form 
a complex sentence. (See Lesson LIV.) 
A dependent clause is the subject, object, or attri- 



140 DIFFERENT KINDS OF CLAUSES. 

bute in the sentence, or else is an adjunct to some word in the 
principal clause. 

Dependent clauses, when used as adjuncts, are connected to 
the principal clause by relative pronouns or conjunctive ad- 
verbs. 

When clauses are connected by conjunctions they form 
compound sentences. 

The clauses of a compound sentence may be independent as re- 
gards the grammatical structure of the sentence, or one may bo 
subordinate to the other in regard to the thought or fact expressed. 
In the two following sentences the clauses are wholly independent, 
and their order of arrangement might be reversed : — 

" He rode all unarmed, and he rode all alone." " Eiches have 
wings, and grandeur is a dream." 

In the following sentences the arrangement is dictated only by 
the order of time, and the clauses are independent : — ■ 

" He quaffed off the wine, and he threw down the cup." "All 
flesh is grass, and all its glory fades." 

The clauses of a compound sentence that are connected 
without any dependence are called CO-ordinate clauses. 

When a compound sentence is not composed of co-ordinate 
clauses, it must consist of a leading clause and one or 
more subordinate clauses. 

The following are examples : — ■ 

1. "I will visit him, if he be sick." 

2. " You must take heed, lest you be betrayed." 

3. "I shall not go, unless I receive a notice, and unless the 
weather be favorable." 

In Sentences 1 and 2 the second clause is subordinate, and in 
3 the second and third clauses are subordinate. In these sentences 
there are no adjunct clauses, and no clause forms a part of the 
structure of any other clause. The sentences, therefore, are not 
complex but compound. 

For exercises on clauses see Vic folio win;/ lessons. 



SUBJECT AND ATTEIBUTE CLAUSES. 141 



LESSON XCII. 
SUBJECT AND ATTRIBUTE CLAUSES. 

(Complex Sentences.) 

Analyze the following sentences by diagram and orally. Write the 
parsing of 1, 2, and 3. 

1. That you have wronged me is very evident. 

2. That we should be kind to all is without dispute. 

3. That idleness leads to ruin is a certain fact. 

4. How this difficulty is to be removed has not been dis- 
covered.' 

5. My hope is that you will be restored to health. 

6. His reply was that he was sure of success. 

7. The general sentiment was that the accused person was 
guilty. 

Example. — "That Caesar invaded Britain is a well-known his- 
torical fact." 



Cajsar invaded Britain 
'-"- (that) 



well-known 



fact. 



historical 

Oral Analysis. — A complex declarative sentence. The subject is the 
dependent clause, Caesar invaded Britain ; the predicate verb is is ; the attri- 
bute is fact. The connective word is that. The subject of the dependent 
clause is Ccesar, the predicate verb invaded, and the object Britain. 

Observation. 

The word that, which introduces these clauses, is considered a conjunction, 
because, while it does not connect two complete propositions, it implies that 
the clause which it introduces is dependent upon, and forms a part of, the 
principal proposition. 



142 



OBJECT CLAUSES. 



Model Exercise tn Written Parsing.* 



Word. 


Part of 
Speech. 


Class. 


Modifications. 


Relation. 


Syntax. 


That 


Conj. 


Copulative. 




Connects clanses. 




Caesar 


Noun. 


Proper. 


3d, Sing., 
Mas., Nom. 


Subj. of Invaded. 


Rule VI. 




Verb, -j 


Regular. 


Ind.,Imp.,3d, 






Invaded 


Act. -Trans. 


Sing. 


Pred. Verb. 


Rule VIII. 


Britain 


Noun. 


Proper. 


3d, Sing., 
Neut., Obj. 


Obj. of Invaded. 


Rule XIX. 


Is 


Verb, -j 


Irregular. 
Neuter. 


Ind.,Pres.,3d, 

Sing. 


Pred. Verb. 


Rule VI. 


A 


Article. 


Indef. 




Adjunct of fact. 


Rule I. 


Well-known 


Adj. 


Compound. 




,, " " 


Rule IT. 


Historical 


„ 


Common. 




" " « 


Rule II. 


Fact. 


Noun. 


Common. 


3d, Sing., 
Neut.. Nom. 


Attribute. 


Rule XIII. 



Construction. 
Construct three sentences, each containing a subject clause. 
Construct three sentences, each containing an attribute clause. 



LESSON XCIII. 
OBJECT CLAUSES. 

Analyze the following complex sentences by diagram and orally. 

1. The orator felt that every eye was upon him. 

2. Remember that indolence can lead to nothing but disgrace 
and misery. 

3. The fool hath said in his heart, There is no God. 

4. Consider well whether you are able to accomplish the work 
undertaken. 

5. Nathan said unto David, Thou art the man. 

6. Catharine had now to learn what it is to be a slave. 



*This form of parsing exercise is a tabulated representation of Goold 
Brown's oral method. See Grammar of English Grammars, page 475, and 
on other pages. 



INFINITIVE OBJECT CLAUSES. 143 

Example. — "Always bear in mind that you owe very much to 
your parents." 



(Thou or you) 



bear that 



mind You owe much 

, to very I 
I parents 
your \ 



Observations. 

[The numbers refer to the sentences.] 

2. In this sentence but is used as a preposition. 

6. Here the object clause depends upon the principal part (learn) of the in- 
finitive phrase, which itself is the object of the verb had (that is, had as a 
task). In this phrase, to be a slave is an explanatory adjunct of the subject 
it. What is the attribute. The diagram of it is here given : — 

to learn 

it is what 



to be — I slave 



In this phrase, slave is an indefinite attribute. (See Lesson LXXXV., 
Obs. under Rule XIII.) 

Construction. 

Construct five sentences, each containing an ohject clause. 



LESSON XCIV. 

INFINITIVE OBJECT CLAUSES. 

Analyze, by diagram and orally, the following complex sentences. 
(See Lesson LXXVIII.) Parse Sentences 5 and 6. 

1. Many witnesses proved him to be guilty of the crime of which 
he was accused. 

2. Do not forbid them to enter the garden. 



144 INFINITIVE OBJECT CLAUSES. 

3. A good speaker will always make himself understood by bis 
audience. 

4. William made himself very agreeable in society. 

5. Let the child learn such things as are adapted to bis under- 
standing. 

6. We often see bad men honored by official appointment. 
Example. — Sentence 1. 

I witnesses proved 



Many | him to be 



| of 
which 

Oral Analysis. — A complete declarative sentence. The subject noun 
is witnesses, modified by the adjunct many; the predicate verb is proved, 
and its object the infinitive clause, of which him is the subject, to be the verb, 
and guilty the attribute, modified by the complex prepositional phrase, of the 
crime of which he was accused. Of this phrase the principal part is crime, of 
which the adjuncts are the and the relative clause, of which he ivas accused. 

Observations. 

3. The infinitive verb in this sentence is to be understood. The subject 
of the infinitive after make and some other verbs is sometimes called a facti- 
tive object ; as, "He made the horse run rapidly." — "It made the water red." 
— "He made the water wine." — "He painted the blinds green." (The word 
factitive is from the Latin facere, to make.) 

The relation in which the noun or adjective, in this construction, stands 
to the preceding noun or pronoun is that of an attribute to the subject, the 
connecting verb being omitted. A change to the passive form wDl render this 
obvious; as, "The horse was made to run.'" — "The water was made red." — 
"The water was made wine.''''— "The blinds were painted green.'''' 

4. " Made himself very agreeable ; " that is, made or caused himself to be 
very agreeable. 

5. In this sentence as is used as a relative pronoun. (See Lesson 
LXXXVL, Obs. under Rule XIV.) 

Construction. 
Construct five sentences, each containing an infinitive object clause. 



ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 145 

LESSON XCV. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

Analyze, by diagram and orally, the following complex sentmces. 
Parse Sentences 6 and 8. 

1. No person who is truly honest will in any way deceive. 

2. Xerxes, who invaded Greece, was a great monarch. 

3. The statement that the vessel was lost proved untrue. 

4. The merchant received intelligence that his agent had de- 
frauded him. 

5. The promise that he should be appointed to an office was 
not fulfilled. 

6. Why should he ever be afraid who fully trusts in the loving- 
kindness of the Almighty? 

7. He never lost confidence that the truth would finally tri- 
umph. 

8. I visited last year the place where I was born. 

Example. — " I, who am your friend, will aid you in the task 
which you Lave undertaken." 

I _ _ will aid you 

-""= | i n 

I task 
the I 



You have undertaken _ j which 

who am I friend 

your j 



Observations. 

1 and 2. For explanation of the punctuation of the relative clauses, see 
Lessons XLIX. and LIV. 

3. The word that is a conjunction, and the clause which it introduces 
shows what statement is spoken of. 

8. The phrase last, year is adverbial and prepositional, the preposition 
being understood. Where I wax horn is an adjective clause because it is an 
adjunct of place. Where is an adverb relating to the verb was bom, and is 
equivalent to the adverbial phrase in. which. The adverb where is also con- 
nective. 

10 



146 ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

LESSON XCVI. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

Analyze, by diagram and orally, the following complex sentences. 
Parse Sentences 3 and 4. 

1. He would not rest until bis work was finished. 

2. Loose conversation operates on the mind as poison does on 
the body. 

3. While the battle went on the enemy's artillery continued to 
fire on the advancing troops. 

4. My friend, immediately after he returned home, paid me a 
visit, which was very agreeable. 

5. Where your treasure is, there will your heart be also. 

6. When they came to countries where the people were simple 
and unwarlike, they took possession. 

Example. — " When faith grows dim, and hope has fled, how 
sad it is to live !" 



it j 

to live 



how 



and 



j faith - - 
) hope - - 



when 

grows dim 



has fled 



Note. — Do not forget that the parallel lines indicate the explanatory or 
appositive relation. 

Oral Analysis. — A complex exclamatory sentence. The subject is it ; 
the predicate verb, is ; and the attribute, sad. The subject has the explana- 
tory adjunct to live ; the predicate verb is modified by the compound adver- 
bial clause, when faith grows dim and hope has fled, consisting of the two 
simple clauses connected by and. 

When is a conjunctive adverb connecting the principal clause and the 
dependent clauses, and relating to the verbs grows and has fit d. 

The diagram shows this connection by the line continuing the adjunct 
line from is ; and the twofold relation is shown by the adjunct line from 
grows and has fled. 



EXPLANATORY CLAUSES. 147 



Observations. 



4. Before home the preposition to is understood. (See Lesson LXXXVIIL, 
Obs. under Rule XIX.) Me is also an indirect object. 

5. The adverb there, corresponding to where, is used only for emphasis. 
It introduces the principal clause, which ordinarily is placed first. 

6. Where is equivalent to in which. (See Lesson XCV., Obs. 8.) 
Punctuation. — Adverbial phrases and clauses when out of their ordinary 

or natural position should be separated by the comma. (See Sentences 4, 5, 6.) 



LESSON XCVII. 
EXPLANATORY CLAUSES. 

Analyze, by diagram and orally, the following complex sentences. 
Parse Sentences 4 and 5. 

1. It has been conclusively proved that the earth is round. 

2. It is the wish of most parents that their children should be 
well educated. 

3. It caused much anxiety that he should have absented him- 
self so long. 

4. Would it not be advisable that you should give up the pro- 
ject? 

5. It was observed that he derived but little enjoyment from the 
benefits which he diffused. 

Example. — " Explain, when you are able, how it happened that 
you did not foresee what occurred." 

(Thou or yon) 



it ! happened 
gj| how l 
§- 1 you did | foresee 



not what occurred. 

You I are able 

Ouaj. Analysis. — A complex imperative sentence. The subject is thou 
or you (understood) ; the predicate verb, explain ; and the object how it hap- 
pened. The adjunct oi. explain is the adverbial clause, when you are able ; 



148 INDEPENDENT CLAUSES AND PHRASES. 

and the adjunct of it is the complex clause, you did not foresee what occurred, 
connected to the principal clause by that. The clause what occurred is the 
object of foresee. 

Observations. 

5. In this sentence but is an adverbial adjunct of little, being equivalent 
to only. The explanatory clause is complex, containing the modifying re- 
lative clause, which he diffused. 

Construction. 

Construct five sentences, each containing an explanatory clause. 



LESSON XCVIII. 

INDEPENDENT CLAUSES AND PHRASES. 

A clause may be treated as independent when it is intend- 
ed to form no part of the general structure of the sentence. 
The following are examples. 

1. Such, said I, is the vanity of all earthly ambition. 

2. Endeavor, / beseech you, to store your minds with that knowl- 
edge which will ever be useful to you. 

3. " Almet," said he, " remember what thou hast seen." 

4. However dangerous idleness may be, are there not pleasures, 
it may be asked, that attend it ? 

Such clauses are sometimes called parenthetical clauses. 
Independent phrases have various forms : 

1. Infinitive; as, " To confess the truth, I was wrong." 

2. Participial ; as, " Generally speaking, that is true." 

3. Vocative (addressing) ; as, " My dear son, avoid bad com- 
pany." 

4. Absolute ; as, " Night coming on, we sought a place of shelter." 

5. Pleonastic ; as, *' Your fathers, where are they?" 

In the last construction there is an excess of words (plqonasm), 
used for the purpose of emphasis. The last example simply ex- 



INDEPENDENT CLAUSES AND PHRASES. 149 

pressed would be : Where are your fathers ? But by making the 
phrase your fathers independent, we render it emphatic. 

All independent nouns and pronouns are in the nominative 
case. 

Punctuation. — Independent words, phrases, and clauses are 
to be set off by commas. (See examples.) 

Examples Analyzed. 
1. " Such, said I, is the vanity of all earthly ambition." 
I said 



vanity is such 

| of 
ambition 



the 

all 

earthly 

As this diagram shows, the independent clause may be treated as the prin- 
cipal clause, and the main proposition be considered as an object clause. This, 
however, while grammatically correct, does not properly interpret the true re- 
lation of the parts, as it makes that the primary proposition which is designed 
to be only subordinate. 

2. "The sun having set, we were obliged to discontinue our 
observations." 



j sun 
The j ~ j having set 



were obliged 

j to 
discontinue i observations. 



our 

Analyze in the same manner all the examples in this lesson, and 
parse the independent clauses and phrases. 

Construction. 
Construct three sentences, each containing an independent clause, and 
three senloices each containing an independent phrase. 



150 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 



LESSON XCIX. 
COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

Analyze the following compound sentences by diagram and orally. 
State of what hinds of clauses they are composed. (See Lesson XCI.) 

1. The clouds of sorrow gathered round his head, and the tem- 
pest of hatred roared about his dwelling. 

2. Science may raise thee to eminence, but religion alone can 
guide thee to felicity. 

3. If thou go, see that thou offend not. 

4. Discover not a secret to another, lest he that heareth it put 
thee to shame. 

5. Happiness is more equally diffused among mankind than 
most persons suppose. 

6. While every one praises truth and sincerity, how few there 
are who constantly practice them ! 

7. The secrets of nature remain so long undiscovered because 
so many think they know them. 

8. When good men rule, the people rejoice ; but they mourn 
under the tyranny of the vicious. 

9. Industry brings pleasure ; idleness, pain. 

10. Favor is deceitful, and beauty is vain ; but a woman that 
feareth the Lord, she shall be praised. 

Example. — "No man of sense ever took any pains to appear 
wise, as no honest man ever used tricks to display his own integ- 
rity." 

took 



man 

I of 



any 



honest 



used 

| to 
display 



pains 

| to 
appear 
tricks 



his 
own 



integrity 



SYNOPSIS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 



151 



Observations. 

3. Leading and subordinate clauses ; subordinate clause introduced by if. 
Leading clause complex. 

4. The first clause is the leading clause. The subordinate clause is com- 
plex. Put is the subjunctive mood. 

5. The second clause is subordinate by comparison, expressed by than. 

7. The second clause expresses the cause of what is asserted in the first as 
a leading proposition. The relation expressed is that of cause and effect. 

9. The predicate verb of the second clause is understood. The comma is 
used to mark its omission. 

10. The first part of the second clause of the sentence, a woman thatfear- 
eth the Lord, is independent by pleonasm. 

Punctuation. — 1. The semicolon is used to separate clauses when they 
are divided by commas. (See Sentences 8, 9, and 10.) 

2. The comma is used to supply an omitted predicate verb, as in Sentence 9. 



LESSON C. 
SYNOPSIS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW. 



Analysis. 

[The numbers refer to those of 



Sentences 18 


, 19 


I. Classes 


.48 


1. As to Form 


48 


1. Simple 


.48 


2. Complex 


.54 


3. Compound 


.48 


2. As to Use 


.32 


1. Declarative 


.32 


2. Interrogative . 


.32 


3. Imperative 


.33 


4. Exclamatory . . 


.34 


II. Parts. ... 


30 


1. Subject 


.30 


Noun or pronoun . 


.30 



the lessons.] 

Simple or com- 
pound 37 

2. Predicate 30 

1. Verb 30 

2. Object 21 

3. Attribute 36 

Simple or com- 
pound 37 

3. Adjuncts 30 

1. Classes 52 

1. As to Form. ..52 

1. Word 52 

2. Phrase 52 

3. Clause 52 



152 



SYNOPSIS FOR TOPICAL KEVIEW. 



2. As to Use.... 52 

1. Adjective . .52 

2. Adverbial . . 30 

52,53 

3. Explanatory 52 

3. As to Signifi- 

cation 52 

1. Modifying . . 52 

2. Descriptive . 52 

II. Phrases 38 

Classes 38, 79 

1. As to Form 38 

1. Prepositional. . .38 

2. Participial 76 

3. Infinitive 77 

2. As to Use 79 

1. Substantive 

(Noun) 79 

1. Subject 79 

2. Object 79 

3. Attribute 79 

2. Adjective 79 

3. Adverbial 79 

4. Explanatory .... 79 

5. Independent ... 79 

3. As to Construction. 79 

1. Simple 79 

2. Complex 79 

3. Compound 79 



III. Clauses 

Classes 

1. As to Form. 



Member 



1. P k elative 54 

2. Infinitive object. 78 

2. As to Use 91 

1. Substantive 

(Noun) 91 

1. Subject 91 

2. Object 91 

3. Attribute .... 91 

2. Adjective 91 

3. Adverbial 91 

4. Explanatory 91 

5. Independent, or 

Parenthetical . 91 

6. Independent. 53, 91 

3. As to relation, or 

Connections ... .91 

1. Principal 53 

2. Dependent.... 53 

1. Leading 91 

2. Subordinate. ..91 

3. Co-ordinate . ..91 
j 1. Independent ..91 
"j 2. Subordinate ..91 

4. As to construction. 91 

1. Simple 91 

2. Complex 91 

3. Compound 91 



USE OF CAPITALS. 153 

LESSON 01. 
USE OF CAPITALS. 

Capitals should be used in the following cases : 

1. In the titles of books, and in the heads of their princi- 
pal divisions. 

Examples. — Pope's Essay on Man. — Brown's Grammar of the 
English Language. — The Acts of the Apostles. — The Analysis of 
Sentences. . 

2. The first word of every sentence, or of any clause or 
phrase separately numbered, should begin with a capital. 

Example. — Parents should teach their children : 1. The duty 
of obedience ; 2. The importance of industry ; 3. The need of per- 
severance. 

3. Names of the Deity should always begin with a capital. 

Examples. — God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, 
Providence, the All-Wise, the Father, the Great First Cause. 

Remark. — Pronouns referring to the Deity need not begin with a capital 
unless they are used emphatically; as, "Shall He who created the ear not 
hear ? " " The Deity revealed himself to Moses." 

4. Proper nouns and adjectives, and all titles of office and 
honor should begin with a capital. 

Examples.— The city of London is the capital of the British 
Empire. — The President of the United States. — New York is situ- 
ated on the Hudson river. — The prophet Elisha. — The Copernican 
system. 

5. The letters I and O, when used by themselves as words, 
should be capitals. 

Example. — " Out of the depths have I cried unto thee, O Lord." 

6. Every line in a poem should begin with a capital. 



154 PUNCTUATION. — REVIEW. 

Example. — "To others do (the law is not severe) 

What to thyself thou wishest to be done." 

7. A direct and complete quotation should begin with a 
capital 

Examples. — Virgil says, " Labor conquers all things." — Na- 
than said to David: "Thou art the man." — "I will not," said 
John, " degrade myself by telling a falsehood." 

Mvcercise. 

Copy the following sentences, and insert or omit capital letters as 
required. 

1. Bancroft's history of the United states is a great work. 

2. The roman empire was divided into two parts on the death 
of theodosius. , 

3. The theban General, epaminondas, was noted for his love of 
truth. 

4. The "lady of the lake" was written by sir Walter scott, a 
noted Scottish writer and poet. 

5. Pope says, " order is heaven's First law." 

6. " O liberty ! " exclaimed cicero, the roman orator, " o Sound 
once delightful to every roman ear." 

7. " Society, friendship, and love, 

divinely bestowed upon man ! 
o, had i the wings of a Dove, 

how soon would i taste you again ! " 



LESSON OIL 

PUNCTUATION.— REVIEW. 

Directions have been given in the preceding lessons for the use of the 
points. The following is a summary of the rules, chiefly for review and guid- 
ance in the succeeding lessons. 

The comma is required to separate — 

1. The simple clauses of a compound sentence. (See Lessons 
XXV., XXXVII., and LV.) 



PUNCTUATION. — EEVIEW. 155 

2. Dependent clauses and phrases, when merely descriptive. 
(See Lesson LII.) 

3. A series of three or more words used in the same construction. 
(See Lessons XXV., and XXXVII.) 

4. Words and phrases in apposition. (See Lesson LII.) 

5. Relative clauses when not used as modifying adjuncts. (See 
Lesson LIV.) 

6. Participial phrases not used as modifying adjuncts. (See 
Lesson LXXVI.) 

7. Phrases and clauses placed out of their natural order. (See 
Lessons LXXVI. and XOVI.) 

8. Independent words, phrases, and clauses. (See Lessons XL. 
and XCVIII.) 

9. Words between which there is a predicate verb understood. 
(See Lesson XCIX.) 

The semicolon is required to separate compound or 
complex clauses. (See Lesson XCIX.) 

The colon is used chiefly to separate quotations and ex- 
amples, as in the following : — 

1. Always heed the golden rule: "Do unto others as you 
would have them do unto you." 

2. Cherish the three cardinal virtues : faith, hope, and charity. 

The period should be used— 

1. At the end of every sentence. 

2. After an abbreviated word; as, "Jno. A. Smith." — "Gib- 
bon's Hist., vol. ii., p. 155." 

The note of interrogation is used to denote a ques- 
tion. 

The note of exclamation is used to indicate some 
strong or sudden emotion. (See Lessons XXVII. and XXXIV.) 

The dash is used — 

1. To denote a break or unexpected pause; as, "Didst thou — 
but how can I ask thee ? " 

2. To separate parenthetical expressions ; as, " Religion is — 
who doubts it '? — the greatest of themes." 



156 EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION. 

3. Before explanatory expressions ; as, " There are two kinds of 
evils — those which can be cured, and those which cannot." 

The curves, or marks of parenthesis, enclose 
parenthetical expressions. 

Example. — " How often do we see a gentleman (if gentleman 
he can be called) commit an act of rude selfishness ! " 

The brackets or crotchets are used to enclose some 
correction or explanation. 

Example. — "He [who?] was of a different opinion." 



LESSON CIII. 
EXERCISES IN CONSTRUCTION. 

Construct sentences, one of each kind, containing — 
I. Phrases. 

1. Two prepositional phrases. 2. An explanatory infinitive 
phrase. 3. An independent phrase (infinitive). 4. An indepen- 
dent phrase (absolute). 5. An independent phrase (vocative). 
(See Lesson XCVIII.) 6. A complex adverbial phrase. 7. A com- 
plex participial phrase. 8. A compound adjective phrase. 9. An 
infinitive phrase used as a subject. 10. An infinitive phrase used 
as an object. 11. An infinitive phrase used as an attribute. 12. 
An infinitive phrase used as an adjective adjunct. 

II. Clauses. (See Preceding Lessons.) 

13. A subject clause. 14. An object clause. 15. An attribute 
clause. 16. An adverbial clause. 17. An explanatory clause. 
18. An adjective clause (modifying). 19. An adjective clause 
(descriptive). 20. An independent (parenthetical clause). 21. A 
principal clause and two dependent clauses. 22. Three inde- 
pendent clauses. 23. A leading and a subordinate clause. 24. 
Two complex clauses. 25. Two compound clauses. 



COMPOSITION. — CONNECTION OF SENTENCES. 157 

LESSON CIV. 

COMPOSITION.— CONNECTION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences, when they are related in thought, may be con- 
nected so as to form a composition. 

The following is an example : — 

1. Charles was a boy about seven years old. 

2. He was in very poor health. 

3. The doctor recommended a change of air. 

4. Charles was sent on a visit to his aunt. 

5. She lived on a farm in the country. 

6. Charles was delighted to see so many new things. 

7. He took much pleasure in watching the milking of the cows, 
and the feeding of the pigs and poultry. 

8. He roamed over the fields and through the groves. 

9. He often went with his cousin to the brook, and spent many 
hours fishing in it. 

10. He had a very pleasant time. 

11. After a couple of months, he returned home strong and 
well. 

These sentences united form the following composition on — 

Charles's Visit to the Country. 

Charles was a boy about seven years old, and, as he was in veiy 
poor health, the doctor recommended a change of air. Charles 
was, therefore, sent on a visit to his aunt, who lived on a farm in 
the country. He was delighted to see so many new things, and 
took much pleasure in watching the milking of the cows, and the 
feeding of the pigs and poultry. He roamed over the fields and 
through the groves ; and often went with his cousin to the brook, 
and spent many hours fishing in it. He had, indeed, a* very pleas- 
ant time, and returned home quite strong and well. 

Classify the sentences, and write the name, of each. Which of them 
are connected in the composition ? What connecting words are em- 
ployed ? 



158 COMPOSITION. — CONNECTION OF SENTENCES. 



Exercises. 

In a similar way, write compositions by uniting the sentences 
given. 

I. The Dog of Ulysses. 

1. Ulysses was King of ancient Ithaca. 

2. Ithaca is an island near Greece. 

3. Ulysses joined the Greeks in their famous war against Troy. 

4. Troy was taken after a siege of ten years. 

5. Ulysses could not return home till after many years of wan- 
dering and adventure. 

6. When at last he got back, he found his kingdom in the posses- 
sion of enemies. 

7. He put on the disguise of a beggar. 

8. No one knew him thus disguised, and after so long an ab- 
sence. 

9. His faithful dog, Argus, was lying, old and decrepit, at the 
gate. 

10. Argus started as Ulysses approached, knew him instantly, 
limped toward him, wagging his tail with joy, and then fell dead 
at his feet. 

II. Grace Darling. 

1. A steamship was wrecked on the coast amid a frightful 
storm. 

2. Mr. Darling, the keeper of the light-house, saw the people 
clinging to the wreck and to the rocks. 

3. He was afraid to venture out in his boat to rescue them. 

4. His daughter Grace, a young woman, urged him to go, and 
let her accompany him. 

5. They went, and, after dreadful dangers and difficulties, suc- 
ceeded in saving nine of the people from a watery grave. 

6. This conduct of Grace Darling gained for her very groat 
praise and admiration. 

[These exercises can be continued a.t the pleasure of the teacher. The sen- 
tences may be used for additional practice in analysis and parsing.] 



DESCKIPTIVE COMPOSITIONS. 159 

LESSON CV. 

DESCRIPTIVE COMPOSITIONS. 

The pupil is here required to write a description of the object given, in- 
cluding the characteristics mentioned. He thus constructs sentences, and 
connects them. 

Example. — The Whale. 

Points or Topics. — A very large animal. Sometimes called 
a fish. Not a fish. Warm-blooded. Breathes by means of lungs. 
A fish breathes through its gills. The whale must come to the 
surface to breathe, or spout. Has two fins {flippers), one on each 
side, and a flat, powerful tail. With this it can swim with great 
rapidity. 

Composition. 

The whale is a very large animal, sometimes called a fish ; but 
it is not a fish, for it is warm-blooded, and breathes not by gills, 
like a fish, but by means of lungs. Therefore it must come to the 
surface to breathe, or spout. It has two fins [flippers), one on each 
side, and a flat, powerful tail, with which it can swim with great 
rapidity. 

[The pupil should study this example very carefully, copying the composi- 
tion in connection with the points or topics, then writing it once or twice, 
from the topics, so as to become familiar with the mode of constructing the 
sentences.] 

Exercises. 

In a similar manner, write compositions from the following, con- 
structing sentences, and properly uniting them. 

1. The Reindeer. — A very useful animal to the inhabitants 
of the Arctic regions. Of large size. Domesticated and made to 
do useful work. Not very graceful in shape. Tail very short. 
Little or no mane. Long shaggy hair on the front of the neck. 
Large branching horns. Flesh and milk excellent. Skin used by 
the Laplanders for various purposes. Can travel very fast and 
draw heavy loads. 

2. The Swan.— A large swimming or water bird. Web- 
footed, like the goose and duck. Neck long and gracefully curv- 
ing. Wings long and powerful. Flight high and rapid. Eyes 



160 LETTER- WRITING. 

small and near the bill. Glides very gracefully over the water. 
Lives on grass, roots, and seeds, also on worms, insects, and small 
fishes. Plumage generally white. 

3. The Beaver. — A valuable fur-bearing animal. Belongs 
to the order of quadrupeds called rodents, or gnawing animals. 
Body short and broad, from three to four feet long. Has a broad 
and flat tail. Uses this in building its dam and lodge. It carries 
the material for this between its chin and fore-paws. Places it 
with its fore-feet, patting it with its flat tail. An amphibious ani- 
mal, so called because it lives on the land or in the water. 



LESSON CVI. 
LETTER-WRITINC. 

A letter consists of five parts ; namely, the heading, the 
address, the body, the closing, and the super- 
scription (on the envelope). 

The heading consists of the name of the place at which 
the letter is written, and the date. 

This should be written a line or two from the top of the page, 
and should be commenced so that it may end near the margin of 
the sheet at the right. Thus : — 

New York, July 10, 1889. 
Or, when the street is mentioned : — 

56 Lafayette Place, 
New York, July 10, 1889. 

The address includes the name of the person to whom 
the letter is to be sent, and under this the proper term, or 
terms, of address ; as, Sir or Madam, Dear Sir or Dear Madam, 
etc. 

The body of the letter is its chief part, containing what is 
designed to be said to the person to whom the letter is sent 

The closing is the formal expression of respect, compli- 
ment, or endearment which precedes the signature. 



LETTE R-W KITING. 



161 



The superscription is the statement, on the envelope, 
of the name and address of the person to whom the letter is 
to be sent. 

Write the name about midway between the top and bottom of 
the envelope. Under this write the address, commencing each 
line a little farther to the right than that above it. Affix the 
postage-stamp to the right-hand corner at the top of the envelope. 

The top of the envelope is that part which is turned down and 
lapped over in sealing. 

Examples are here given. 

Envelope Sealed. 




Envelope Addkessed. 






Stamp. 


^yvil. &nal/cd Bmndonj 


3 JO Sa*J dfi<*fd dMe*t, 


Q^ea, foil 



162 LETTER-WRITING.— FORMS OF ADDRESS. 

Exercise. 

Write the following addresses upon blank envelopes, or blank pieces 
of paper cut into the form and shape of envelopes. 

1. Mrs. William W. Hart, Milford, Pike Co., Pa. 

2. Henry B. Cook, Esq., Cincinnati, O. 

3. Mr. Thomas Brown, Baltimore, Md. 

4. Miss Sophia H. Jones, 209 Tremont Street, Boston, Mass. 

5. Messrs. William Wood & Company, 56 and 58 Lafayette Place, 
New York. 

6. His Excellency D. B. Hill, Executive Chamber, Albany, N. Y. 

7. Hon. S. S. Cox, M. C, House of Bepresentatives, Washing- 
ton, D. C. 



LESSON CVII. 
LETTER-WRITING.— FORMS OF ADDRESS. 

The address should follow the heading on the line below, 
near the left side of the page, usually a little to the right of 
the body of the letter. 

The following are examples. 

1. For very formal letters : — 

Mr. Thomas H. Brown, Mrs. T. H. Brown, 

Springfield, III. Brooklyn, N. Y. 

Sir, Madam, 

2. Ordinary style : — 

Mr. William A. Thompson, Mrs. E. A. Jones, 

Bear Sir, or Bear Madam, or 

My dear Sir, My dear Madam, 

3. Implying greater intimacy : — 

Bear Mr. Brown, or Bear Miss Knox, or 

My dear Mr. Brown, My dear Mrs. James, 

Other forms of address will be required according to circum- 



LETTER- WRITING. — BODY AND CLOSING. 163 

stances, varying with the persons addressed and the terms of inti- 
macy that exist. Thus : — 

A. B. Palmer, Esq.; John Porter, M.D.; Dr. John Porter ; B. 
C. Baldwin, LL.D.; Rev. H. J. Bavis, or Rev. Mr. Davis ; or Rev. 
Noah Porter, D.D., LL.D.; etc. 

In less formal letters the address may be written below and at 
the left of the signature, at the end of the letter. 

The title Hon. is applied to persons holding high governmental 
positions ; His Excellency is often applied to the President of the 
United States and to State Governors. 

Exercise, 

Write, one under the other, on a letter sheet, in the proper form, 
the following dates and addresses. 

1. New York, May 10, 1889. Mr. Thomas Smith. Dear Sir, 

2. Boston, June 1, 1889. Mr. William Porter. My dear Sir, 

3. Philadelphia, January 5, 1889. Mrs. C. H. Smith. Dear 
Madam, 

4. Cincinnati, March 15, 1889. Miss Thompson. Dear Madam, 

5. Baltimore, April 2, 1889. A. B. Palmer, Esq. My dear Sir, 

6. Savannah, July 1, 1889. My dear Friend, 

7. Chicago, June 25, 1889. My dear Mr. Smith, 

8. New York, August 5, 1889. The Eev. John Brown, D.D. 
Sir, or, Eev. and dear Sir, 

9. Washington, D. C, September 1, 1889. Col. Henry John- 
son, U. S. A. Dear Colonel, 

10. Albany, N. Y, November 9, 1889. Hon. Levi P. Morton, 
Vice-President of the United States. Sir, 



LESSON CVIII. 
LETTER-WRITING.— BODY AND CLOSING. 

The body of the letter should commence on the line 
next below the address, and a little to the right of it. 

The style will, of course, vary with the character of the letter. 



164 LETTER-WRITING. — BODY AND CLOSING. 

Business lettei's should be formal, brief, and to the point. 
Friendly correspondence requires an easy, familiar style. 

A few specimens for the opening are here given : — 
Yours of the 5lh inst. is just received, etc. 
Your favor of the 3d inst. is received, etc. 
Your esteemed favor of the 10th inst. is at hand, etc. 
/ am in receipt of yours, etc. 
Yours of the 10th ult. has remained unanswered until now, etc. 

Closing. 

The forms of closing, followed by the signature, are various. 
A few are here given : — 

Respectfully yours ; Very respectfully yours ; Truly yours ; Yours 
truly: Very truly yours : Your obedient servant : Your obedient, hum- 
ble servant ; Yours cordially ; Faithfully yours ; Yours affectionately ; 
Ever affectionately yours ; As ever, your friend ; etc. 

Specimen of a Business Letter. 



Ketce ^Uo.4.A, dhfte 6, -/sty. 



SoA^i G%. Stated. 



'-■i, 



■uau. ■tui.'i-K.-o.-u-t t&e'Lia.'u -isle- widie-. ■um^.ccA mou. 
a-tc/e-t. Cz-C'l'md : -iAsl-ee ■witM'tAd c-'tetzt-C, <t-l s °/'„ 

G%ed.A^.c^^t^Ccy. y.<w4d / 



APPENDIX. 



List of the Irregular Verbs. 

These lists are to be referred to by the pupils as may be needed in prepar- 
ing the exercises. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part. 


Perfect Participle. 


Abide, 


abode, 


abiding, 


abode. 


Arise, 


arose, 


arising, 


arisen. 


Be, 


was, 


being, 


been. 


Bear, 


bore or bare, 


bearing, 


borne or born.* 


Beat, 


beat, 


beating, 


beat or beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


beginning, 


begun. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beholding, 


beheld. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


beseeching, 


besought. 


Beset, 


beset, 


besetting, 


beset. 


Bid, 


bid or bade, 


bidding, 


bid or bidden. 


Bide, 


bode, 


biding, 


bode. 


Bind, 


bound, 


binding, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


biting, 


bitten or bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bleeding, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blowing, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


breaking, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


breeding, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


bringing, 


brought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


bursting, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


buying, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


casting, 


cast. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chiding, 


chidden or chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


choosing, 


chosen. 


Cleave,f 


cleft or clove, 


cleaving, 


cleft or cloven. 



* Borne signifies carried; born signifies brought forth. 

t Cleave, to split, is irregular, as above ; cleave, to stick, is regular, but clave was for- 
merly used, in the preterit, for cleaved. 



166 




APPENDIX. 




Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part. 


Perfect Participle. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clinging, 


clung. 


Come, 


came, 


coming, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


costing, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


creeping, 


crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cutting, 


cut. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealing, 


dealt. 


Do, 


did, 


doing, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawing, 


drawn. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drinking, - 


drunk or drank. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driving, 


driven. 


Eat, 


Sat or ate, 


eating, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


falling, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


feeding, 


fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 


feeling, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fouglit, 


fighting, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


finding, 


found. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fleeing, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flinging, 


flung. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


freezing, 


frozen. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flying, 


flown. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forbearing, 


forborne. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaking, 


forsaken. 


Get, 


got, 


getting, 


got or gotten. 


Give, 


gave, 


giving, 


given. 


Go, 


went, 


going, 


gone. 


Grind, 


ground, 


grinding, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


growing, 


grown. 


Have, 


bad, 


having, 


bad. 


Hear, 


beard, 


hearing, 


heard. 


Hide, 


bid, 


hiding, 


hidden or hid. 


Hit, 


bit, 


hitting, 


hit. 


Hold, 


beld, 


holding, 


held oi- holden. 


Hurt, 


burt, 


hurting, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


keeping, 


kept. 


Know, 


knew, 


knowing, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laying, 


laid. 


Lead, 


led, 


leading, 


led. 





APPENDIX. 


167 


Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part. 


Perfect Participle. 


Leave, 


left, 


leaving, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lending, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


letting, 


let. 


Lie {to rest), 


lay, 


lying, 


lain. 


Lose, 


lost, 


losing, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


making, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meaning, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


meeting, 


met. 


Outdo, 


outdid, 


outdoing, 


outdone. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paying, 


paid. 


Put, 


put, 


putting, 


put. 


Eead, 


read, 


reading, 


read. 


Eend, 


rent, 


rending, 


rent. 


Eid, 


rid, 


ridding, 


rid. 


Eide, 


rode, 


riding, 


ridden. 


Eing, 


rang or rang, 


ringing, 


rang. 


Eise, 


rose, 


rising, 


risen. 


Eun, 


ran or run, 


running, 


run. 


Say, 


said, 


saying, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seeing, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


seeking, 


sought. 


Sell, 


sold, 


selling, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sending, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


setting, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaking, 


shaken. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shedding, 


shed. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shoeing, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shooting, 


shot. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shutting, 


shut. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shredding, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk or shrank, shrinking, 


shrank or shrunken. 


Sing, 


sung or sang, 


singing, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk or sank, 


sinking, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sitting, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slaying, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


sleeping, 


slept. 


Slide, 


slid, 


sliding, 


slid or slidden. 



168 




APPENDIX. 




Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part. 


Perfect Participle. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slinging, 


slung. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slinking, 


slunk. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smiting, 


smitten or smit. 


Speak, 


spoke, 


speaking, 


spoken. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spending, 


spent. 


Spin, 


spun, 


spinning, 


spun. 


Spit, 


spit, 


spitting, 


spit. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spreading, 


spread. 


Spring, 


sprung or 


sprang, springing, 


sprung. 


Stand, 


stood, 


standing, 


stood. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stealing, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


sticking, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stinging, 


stung. 


Stride, 


strode, 


striding, 


stridden or strid. 


Strike, 


struck, 


striking, 


struck or stricken. 


Strive, 


strove, 


striving, 


striven. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


sweeping, 


swept. 


Swear, 


swore, 


swearing, 


sworn. 


Swim, 


swam, 


swimming, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swinging, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taking, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


teaching, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


tearing, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


telling, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thinking, 


thought. 


Throw, 


threw, 


throwing, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrusting, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


treading, 


trodden or trod. 


Wear, 


wore, 


wearing, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


weaving, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


weeping, 


wept. 


Win, 


won, 


winning, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


winding, 


wound. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wringing, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


writing, 


written. 



APPENDIX. 



169 



List of the Redundant Verbs. 



Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part. Perfect Participle. 


Awake, 


awoke or awaked, 


awaking, 


awaked. 


Belay, 


belaid or belayed, 


belaying, 


belaid or belayed. 


Bend, 


bent or bended, 


bending, 


bent or bended. 


Bereave, 


bereft or bereaved, 


bereaving, 


bereft or bereaved. 


Bet, 


bet or betted, 


betting, 


bet or betted. 


Blend, 


blended or blent, 


blending, 


blended or blent. 


Bless, 


blessed or blest. 


blessing, 


blessed or blest. 


Build, 


built or builded, 


building, 


built or builded. 


Burn, 


burned or burnt, 


burning, 


burned or burnt. 


Catch, 


caught or catched, 


catching, 


caught or catched. 


Clothe, 


clothed or clad, 


clothing, 


clothed or clad. 


Crow, 


crew or crowed, 


crowing, 


crowed. 


Curse, 


cursed or curst, 


cursing, 


cursed or curst. 


Dare, 


dared or durst, 


daring, 


dared. 


Dig, 


dug or digged, 


digging, 


dug or digged. 


Dream, 


dreamed or dreamt 


, dreaming, 


dreamed or dreamt. 


Dress, 


dressed or drest, 


dressing, 


dressed or drest. 


Dwell, 


dwelt or dwelled, 


dwelling, 


dwelt or dwelled. 


Geld, 


gelded or gelt, 


gelding, 


gelded or gelt. 


Gild, 


gilded or gilt, 


gilding, 


gilded or gilt. 


Gird, 


girded or girt, 


girding, 


girded or girt. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graving, 


graven or graved. 


Hang, 


hanged or hung, 


hanging, 


hanged or hung. 


Heave, 


heaved or hove, 


heaving, 


heaved or hoven. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewing, 


hewed or hewn. 


Kneel, 


knelt or kneeled, 


kneeling, 


knelt or kneeled. 


Knit, 


knit or knitted, 


knitting, 


knit or knitted. 


Lade, 


laded, 


lading, 


laded or laden. 


Lean, 


leaned or I6ant, 


leaning, 


leaned or leant. 


Leap, 


leaped or leapt, 


leaping, 


leaped or leapt. 


Learn, 


learned or learnt, 


learning, 


learned or learnt. 


Light, 


lighted or lit, 


lighting, 


lighted or lit. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowing, 


mowed or mown. 


Pen (to coop), 


penned or pent, 


penning, 


penned or pent. 



170 


APPENDIX. 




Present. 


Preterit. 


Imperf. Part 


. Perfect Participle. 


Quit, 


quitted or quit, 


quitting, 


quitted or quit. 


Kap, 


rapped, 


rapping, 


rapped or rapt. 


Reave, 


reft or reaved, 


reaving, 


reft or reaved. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riving, 


riven or rived. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawing, 


sawed or sawn. 


Seethe, 


seethed or sod, 


seething, 


seethed or sodden. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaping, 


shaped or shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaving, 


shaved or shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


shearing, 


sheared or shorn. 


Shine, 


shone or shined, 


shining, 


shone or shined. 


Show, 


showed, 


showing, 


shown or showed. 


Slit, 


slit or slitted, 


slitting, 


slit or slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled or smelt, 


smelling, 


smelled or smelt. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowing, 


sown or sowed. 


Speed, 


sped or speeded, 


speeding, 


sped or speeded. 


Spell, 


spelled or spelt, 


spelling, 


spelled or spelt. 


Spill, 


spilled or spilt, 


spilling, 


spilled or spilt. 


Split, 


split or splitted, 


splitting, 


split or splitted. 


Spoil, 


spoiled or spoilt, 


spoiling, 


spoiled or spoilt. 


Stave, 


staved or stove, 


staving, 


staved or stove. 


Stay, 


staid or stayed, 


staying, 


staid or stayed. 


String, 


strung, 


stringing, 


strung or stringed. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


strowing, 


strowed or strown. 


Sweat, 


sweat or sweated, 


sweating, 


sweat or sweated. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swelling, 


swelled or swollen. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thriving, 


thriven or thrived. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxing, 


waxed or waxen. 


Wet, 


wet or wetted, 


wetting, 


wet or wetted. 


Wont, 


wont, 


wonting, 


wont or wonted. 


Work, 


worked or wrought, working, 


worked or wrought. 



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